{"id":"W2323793152","doi":"10.1007/s00181-016-1079-3","title":"Patent thickets, defensive patenting, and induced R&amp;D: an empirical analysis of the costs and potential benefits of fragmentation in patent ownership","year":2016,"lang":"en","type":"article","venue":"Empirical Economics","topic":"Intellectual Property and Patents","field":"Business, Management and Accounting","cited_by":21,"is_retracted":false,"has_abstract":false,"ca_institutions":"Western University","funders":"","keywords":"Intellectual property; Industrial organization; Fragmentation (computing); Business; Value (mathematics); Market value; Economics","routes":{"ca_aff":true,"ca_fund":false,"ca_venue":false,"about_ca":false,"invisible_to_affiliation_only":false},"retraction":null,"screen":null,"direct_labels":[],"prediction":{"model_version":"codex-gemma-dda1882f352a","candidate_categories":[],"consensus_categories":[],"category_scores_codex":[0.0004210726,0.000182435,0.0003957186,0.0003421472,0.00008773582,0.00006391881,0.0001770589,0.0001482861,0.00008919217],"category_scores_gemma":[0.0001849012,0.000107155,0.0001208743,0.0004066004,0.0001300734,0.0004457364,0.0002335778,0.0001258892,0.000009832643],"about_ca_system_candidate":false,"about_ca_system_consensus":false,"about_ca_system_score_codex":0.000057349,"about_ca_system_score_gemma":0.00002318618,"about_ca_topic_candidate":false,"about_ca_topic_consensus":false,"about_ca_topic_score_codex":0.0006752742,"about_ca_topic_score_gemma":0.001186472,"domain_scores_codex":[0.9986269,0.00006531151,0.0005716818,0.0003646802,0.0001318191,0.0002396431],"domain_scores_gemma":[0.999091,0.0001071222,0.0003916611,0.0002283265,0.0001509349,0.00003093071],"domain_codex":null,"domain_gemma":null,"domain_candidate":null,"domain_consensus":null,"study_design_codex":"observational","study_design_gemma":"observational","study_design_scores_codex":[0.0002767209,0.0001943749,0.9800454,0.00005253084,0.0002423613,9.949437e-7,0.0007859395,0.0007590418,0.001308879,0.0004023641,0.00009568398,0.01583566],"study_design_scores_gemma":[0.001076693,0.00005370555,0.9874935,0.00007690291,0.0003562251,0.000001370521,0.0003883015,0.008714599,0.0007249088,0.0006737942,0.000205013,0.0002349633],"study_design_candidate":"observational","study_design_consensus":"observational","genre_codex":"empirical","genre_gemma":"empirical","genre_scores_codex":[0.9982156,0.00004354286,0.00005540119,0.001081932,0.0001505223,0.0002263369,0.00001727846,0.00001122168,0.0001982332],"genre_scores_gemma":[0.9985099,0.00008567098,0.00003715951,0.001210453,0.00007796475,0.000005969994,0.00002715549,0.00001594311,0.0000297412],"genre_candidate":"empirical","genre_consensus":"empirical","teacher_disagreement_score":0.0156007,"threshold_uncertainty_score":0.4369656,"prediction_status":"machine_predicted_unvalidated"},"machine_scores":{"provisional":true,"baseline":true,"maturity_gate_passed":false,"score_opus":0.2422722337693994,"score_gpt":0.2755955922384261,"score_spread":0.03332335846902676,"validation_status":"score_only:v0-immature-baseline","note":"Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed). Scores rank; they never assert a category."}}