{"id":"W3165134466","doi":"10.1093/pubmed/fdab161","title":"COVID-19 deaths in the USA: Benford’s law and under-reporting","year":2021,"lang":"en","type":"article","venue":"Journal of Public Health","topic":"Benford’s Law and Fraud Detection","field":"Mathematics","cited_by":27,"is_retracted":false,"has_abstract":true,"ca_institutions":"The Scarborough Hospital; University of Toronto","funders":"","keywords":"Benford's law; Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19); 2019-20 coronavirus outbreak; Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2); Betacoronavirus; Public health; Pandemic; Coronavirus Infections; Environmental health; Law; Medicine; Geography; Virology; Political science; Outbreak; Statistics; Infectious disease (medical specialty); Mathematics; Nursing","routes":{"ca_aff":true,"ca_fund":false,"ca_venue":false,"about_ca":false,"invisible_to_affiliation_only":false},"retraction":null,"screen":null,"direct_labels":[],"prediction":{"model_version":"codex-gemma-dda1882f352a","candidate_categories":[],"consensus_categories":[],"category_scores_codex":[0.009675855,0.00009336362,0.0003287251,0.0001052409,0.0002308084,0.0001460428,0.000124224,0.00007713409,0.00008332039],"category_scores_gemma":[0.004617671,0.00006358702,0.00008558057,0.0003064883,0.0000458569,0.0003213777,0.00003558245,0.0004656815,0.00000117015],"about_ca_system_candidate":false,"about_ca_system_consensus":false,"about_ca_system_score_codex":0.0003090065,"about_ca_system_score_gemma":0.002201128,"about_ca_topic_candidate":false,"about_ca_topic_consensus":false,"about_ca_topic_score_codex":0.0007009521,"about_ca_topic_score_gemma":0.009327073,"domain_scores_codex":[0.9973989,0.0004055009,0.001370709,0.0001088704,0.0003995157,0.0003165251],"domain_scores_gemma":[0.9969907,0.0005773398,0.001665976,0.0001892834,0.0001668482,0.000409837],"domain_codex":null,"domain_gemma":null,"domain_candidate":null,"domain_consensus":null,"study_design_codex":"theoretical_or_conceptual","study_design_gemma":"theoretical_or_conceptual","study_design_scores_codex":[0.00001208912,0.0002978598,0.00950923,0.0004241998,0.00005473039,0.0002598108,0.005093518,0.00001887143,0.00004187183,0.961642,0.005976682,0.01666912],"study_design_scores_gemma":[0.002978321,0.0007876681,0.02912825,0.0001828238,0.00005102053,0.01408842,0.01742892,0.0003115478,0.00008905665,0.478866,0.45572,0.0003680032],"study_design_candidate":"theoretical_or_conceptual","study_design_consensus":"theoretical_or_conceptual","genre_codex":"empirical","genre_gemma":"empirical","genre_scores_codex":[0.7730321,0.0008891301,0.0674973,0.1449539,0.0006695732,0.0003307541,0.000005274169,0.00003017311,0.01259175],"genre_scores_gemma":[0.9780151,0.0001340438,0.003990416,0.01749957,0.0002093149,0.000002492378,0.000001056495,0.00001123335,0.0001368019],"genre_candidate":"empirical","genre_consensus":"empirical","teacher_disagreement_score":0.4827761,"threshold_uncertainty_score":0.5528118,"prediction_status":"machine_predicted_unvalidated"},"machine_scores":{"provisional":true,"baseline":true,"maturity_gate_passed":false,"score_opus":0.3203344725073977,"score_gpt":0.4402841881444591,"score_spread":0.1199497156370614,"validation_status":"score_only:v0-immature-baseline","note":"Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed). Scores rank; they never assert a category."}}