{"id":"W4410163803","doi":"10.1021/acsearthspacechem.5c00036","title":"Cosmic Ray Irradiation of Interstellar Ices on Sulfur-Rich Grains: A Possible Source of Sulfur-Bearing Molecules","year":2025,"lang":"en","type":"article","venue":"ACS Earth and Space Chemistry","topic":"Astrophysics and Star Formation Studies","field":"Physics and Astronomy","cited_by":3,"is_retracted":false,"has_abstract":true,"ca_institutions":"","funders":"European Regional Development Fund; Nemzeti Kutatási Fejlesztési és Innovációs Hivatal; Queen's University; University of Kent; National Research Foundation; Space Telescope Science Institute; European Cooperation in Science and Technology; Danmarks Grundforskningsfond; Horizon 2020 Framework Programme; Queen's University Belfast; Magyar Tudományos Akadémia; Royal Society; Hungarian Research Network","keywords":"Sulfur; Cosmic ray; Astrobiology; Irradiation; Bearing (navigation); Molecule; Interstellar medium; Materials science; Radiochemistry; Physics; Chemistry; Astrophysics; Astronomy; Nuclear physics; Metallurgy; Organic chemistry; Galaxy","routes":{"ca_aff":false,"ca_fund":true,"ca_venue":false,"about_ca":false,"invisible_to_affiliation_only":true},"retraction":null,"screen":null,"direct_labels":[],"prediction":{"model_version":"metacan-v3-hybrid-931329e0061c","candidate_categories":[],"consensus_categories":[],"category_scores_codex":[0.00009955453,0.000237952,0.0001415575,0.0002215298,0.0001429917,0.0001662031,0.000164861,0.0001942011,0.002653687],"category_scores_gemma":[0.00007990957,0.0001217177,0.0001155948,0.000144452,0.0001721469,0.0001396338,0.0001533612,0.0001847812,0.0002443453],"about_ca_system_candidate":false,"about_ca_system_consensus":false,"about_ca_system_score_codex":0.0001436392,"about_ca_system_score_gemma":0.00007749449,"about_ca_topic_candidate":false,"about_ca_topic_consensus":false,"about_ca_topic_score_codex":0.0008676758,"about_ca_topic_score_gemma":0.001280966,"domain_scores_codex":[0.9999661,0.000003938234,0.000001611955,0.000008960914,0.00000934206,0.00001003321],"domain_scores_gemma":[0.9999192,0.0000262541,0.00001825878,0.00001251691,0.00001208474,0.00001180476],"domain_codex":null,"domain_gemma":null,"domain_candidate":null,"domain_consensus":null,"study_design_codex":"bench_or_experimental","study_design_gemma":"bench_or_experimental","study_design_scores_codex":[0.0001208336,0.0000104522,0.001066965,0.00002667825,0.000005176734,0.00005632644,0.00003056177,0.0001166712,0.9976387,0.00004373695,0.00005194312,0.0008319067],"study_design_scores_gemma":[0.000006486605,0.0001020185,0.02011915,0.000005055729,0.00001090161,0.00006755415,0.00004886696,0.0006323415,0.9780701,0.00002846818,0.0009063413,0.000002790349],"study_design_candidate":"bench_or_experimental","study_design_consensus":"bench_or_experimental","genre_codex":"empirical","genre_gemma":"empirical","genre_scores_codex":[0.9958281,0.0002457237,0.00144268,0.00002707874,0.000008735788,0.00001504313,0.000279314,0.0000624076,0.002090929],"genre_scores_gemma":[0.9932275,0.0003615113,0.002430732,0.00005924539,0.000008023774,0.00002545744,0.0004756347,0.00005981362,0.003351952],"genre_candidate":"empirical","genre_consensus":"empirical","teacher_disagreement_score":0.002653687,"threshold_uncertainty_score":0.008877456,"prediction_status":"machine_predicted_unvalidated"},"machine_scores":{"provisional":true,"baseline":true,"maturity_gate_passed":false,"score_opus":0.005654673707244617,"score_gpt":0.2124953725317,"score_spread":0.2068406988244554,"validation_status":"score_only:v0-immature-baseline","note":"Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed). Scores rank; they never assert a category."}}