{"id":"W4411403346","doi":"10.1145/3744746","title":"A Comprehensive Overview of Large Language Models","year":2025,"lang":"en","type":"article","venue":"ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology","topic":"Topic Modeling","field":"Computer Science","cited_by":488,"is_retracted":false,"has_abstract":true,"ca_institutions":"Ontario Tech University","funders":"","keywords":"Computer science; Context (archaeology); Benchmarking; Frontier; Data science; Engineering ethics; Management science; Political science; Engineering; Management","routes":{"ca_aff":true,"ca_fund":false,"ca_venue":false,"about_ca":false,"invisible_to_affiliation_only":false},"retraction":null,"screen":null,"direct_labels":[],"prediction":{"model_version":"codex-gemma-dda1882f352a","candidate_categories":[],"consensus_categories":[],"category_scores_codex":[0.00008379653,0.000104039,0.0002337004,0.0004489834,0.00007726258,0.0000202562,0.0005490413,0.0001377687,0.000004707224],"category_scores_gemma":[0.00000838416,0.0000949426,0.00004397932,0.0005242298,0.00004233498,0.00008865819,0.00004203952,0.0001626198,0.000005102089],"about_ca_system_candidate":false,"about_ca_system_consensus":false,"about_ca_system_score_codex":0.00002354594,"about_ca_system_score_gemma":0.00002686339,"about_ca_topic_candidate":false,"about_ca_topic_consensus":false,"about_ca_topic_score_codex":0.0001282349,"about_ca_topic_score_gemma":0.00001557465,"domain_scores_codex":[0.9991642,0.00002890949,0.0002802776,0.0002744881,0.00008918262,0.0001630034],"domain_scores_gemma":[0.998916,0.00007590107,0.00005731854,0.0008417134,0.0000865437,0.00002247145],"domain_codex":null,"domain_gemma":null,"domain_candidate":null,"domain_consensus":null,"study_design_codex":"theoretical_or_conceptual","study_design_gemma":"simulation_or_modeling","study_design_scores_codex":[0.000003835628,0.0001094528,0.00003348978,0.0002702415,0.00009010114,0.000005690649,0.0004814888,0.003846236,0.0007166103,0.8747651,0.00002854786,0.1196492],"study_design_scores_gemma":[0.0009412989,0.0003178503,0.00003294102,0.001220798,0.00007089377,0.00009399919,0.005261364,0.8016403,0.04269345,0.1228624,0.02437115,0.0004935798],"study_design_candidate":"theoretical_or_conceptual","study_design_consensus":null,"genre_codex":"methods","genre_gemma":"empirical","genre_scores_codex":[0.01333054,0.007140859,0.9775044,0.001015805,0.0003397317,0.0002148138,0.000007517423,0.0001765285,0.0002697848],"genre_scores_gemma":[0.9924573,0.0006583569,0.006416866,0.00008616441,0.000004098734,0.00004258338,4.322369e-7,0.000004286509,0.0003299165],"genre_candidate":"empirical","genre_consensus":null,"teacher_disagreement_score":0.9791268,"threshold_uncertainty_score":0.3871647,"prediction_status":"machine_predicted_unvalidated"},"machine_scores":{"provisional":true,"baseline":true,"maturity_gate_passed":false,"score_opus":0.04191685863724989,"score_gpt":0.307768274351576,"score_spread":0.2658514157143261,"validation_status":"score_only:v0-immature-baseline","note":"Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed). Scores rank; they never assert a category."}}