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Record W1984582452 · doi:10.1090/s0025-5718-00-01282-5

Period of the power generator and small values of Carmichael’s function

2000· article· lv· W1984582452 on OpenAlex

Why this work is in the frame

A frame that forgets how it found something cannot be audited. These are the routes that admitted this work.

affAt least one author lists a Canadian institution in the pinned OpenAlex snapshot.
fundA Canadian funder is recorded on the work.

Bibliographic record

VenueMathematics of Computation · 2000
Typearticle
Languagelv
FieldComputer Science
TopicChaos-based Image/Signal Encryption
Canadian institutionsUniversity of Toronto
FundersNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
KeywordsAlgorithmMaterials scienceComputer science

Abstract

fetched live from OpenAlex

Consider the pseudorandom number generator<disp-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="u Subscript n Baseline identical-to u Subscript n minus 1 Superscript e Baseline left-parenthesis mod m right-parenthesis comma 0 less-than-or-equal-to u Subscript n Baseline less-than-or-equal-to m minus 1 comma n equals 1 comma 2 comma ellipsis comma"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo>≡</mml:mo><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mi>n</mml:mi><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow><mml:mi>e</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:mspace width="0.667em"/><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>mod</mml:mi><mml:mspace width="0.333em"/><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mspace width="1em"/><mml:mn>0</mml:mn><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mspace width="1em"/><mml:mi>n</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>2</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>…</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\begin{equation*} u_n\equiv u_{n-1}^e\pmod {m},\quad 0\le u_n\le m-1,\quad n=1,2,\ldots , \end{equation*}</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></disp-formula>where we are given the modulus<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, the initial value<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="u 0 equals theta"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mn>0</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi>ϑ</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">u_0=\vartheta</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>and the exponent<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="e"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">e</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>. One case of particular interest is when the modulus<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>is of the form<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="p l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">pl</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, where<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="p comma l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">p,l</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>are different primes of the same magnitude. It is known from work of the first and third authors that for moduli<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m equals p l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m=pl</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, if the period of the sequence<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="left-parenthesis u Subscript n Baseline right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">(u_n)</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>exceeds<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m Superscript 3 slash 4 plus epsilon"><mml:semantics><mml:msup><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mn>3</mml:mn><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mo>/</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mn>4</mml:mn><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mi>ε</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msup><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m^{3/4+\varepsilon }</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, then the sequence is uniformly distributed. We show rigorously that for almost all choices of<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="p comma l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">p,l</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>it is the case that for almost all choices of<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="theta comma e"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>ϑ</mml:mi><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mi>e</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\vartheta ,e</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, the period of the power generator exceeds<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="left-parenthesis p l right-parenthesis Superscript 1 minus epsilon"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:msup><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mi>ε</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msup></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">(pl)^{1-\varepsilon }</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>. And so, in this case, the power generator is uniformly distributed. We also give some other cryptographic applications, namely, to ruling-out the cycling attack on the RSA cryptosystem and to so-called time-release crypto. The principal tool is an estimate related to the Carmichael function<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="lamda left-parenthesis m right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>λ</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\lambda (m)</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, the size of the largest cyclic subgroup of the multiplicative group of residues modulo<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>. In particular, we show that for any<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="normal upper Delta greater-than-or-equal-to left-parenthesis log log upper N right-parenthesis cubed"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mo>≥</mml:mo><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>log</mml:mi><mml:mo>⁡</mml:mo><mml:mi>log</mml:mi><mml:mo>⁡</mml:mo><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:msup><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:msup></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\Delta \ge (\log \log N)^3</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, we have<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="lamda left-parenthesis m right-parenthesis greater-than-or-equal-to upper N exp left-parenthesis negative normal upper Delta right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>λ</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>≥</mml:mo><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:mi>exp</mml:mi><mml:mo>⁡</mml:mo><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\lambda (m)\ge N\exp (-\Delta )</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>for all integers<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>with<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="1 less-than-or-equal-to m less-than-or-equal-to upper N"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:mi>N</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">1\le m\le N</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, apart from at most<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="upper N exp left-parenthesis minus 0.69 left-parenthesis normal upper Delta log normal upper Delta right-parenthesis Superscript 1 slash 3 Baseline right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:mi>exp</mml:mi><mml:mo>⁡</mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mn>0.69</mml:mn><mml:msup><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mi>log</mml:mi><mml:mo>⁡</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:

Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.

Full frame distilled prediction

Teacher imitation

Not calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.

metaresearch head score (Codex)0.001
metaresearch head score (Gemma)0.000
Version: codex-gemma-dda1882f352aValidation status: machine_predicted_unvalidated
Candidate categoriesnone
Consensus categoriesnone
DomainCandidate signal: none · Consensus signal: none
Study designCandidate signal: Simulation or modeling · Consensus signal: none
GenreCandidate signal: Empirical · Consensus signal: Empirical
Teacher disagreement score0.704
Threshold uncertainty score0.664

Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category

CategoryCodexGemma
Metaresearch0.0010.000
Meta-epidemiology (narrow)0.0000.000
Meta-epidemiology (broad)0.0000.000
Bibliometrics0.0000.000
Science and technology studies0.0000.000
Scholarly communication0.0000.000
Open science0.0000.000
Research integrity0.0000.000
Insufficient payload (model declined to judge)0.0000.000

Machine scores (provisional)

The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.

Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.

Opus teacher head0.015
GPT teacher head0.226
Teacher spread0.211 · how far apart the two teachers sit on this one work
Validation statusscore_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it