Period of the power generator and small values of Carmichael’s function
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
Consider the pseudorandom number generator<disp-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="u Subscript n Baseline identical-to u Subscript n minus 1 Superscript e Baseline left-parenthesis mod m right-parenthesis comma 0 less-than-or-equal-to u Subscript n Baseline less-than-or-equal-to m minus 1 comma n equals 1 comma 2 comma ellipsis comma"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo>≡</mml:mo><mml:msubsup><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mi>n</mml:mi><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn></mml:mrow><mml:mi>e</mml:mi></mml:msubsup><mml:mspace width="0.667em"/><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>mod</mml:mi><mml:mspace width="0.333em"/><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mspace width="1em"/><mml:mn>0</mml:mn><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mspace width="1em"/><mml:mi>n</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mn>2</mml:mn><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mo>…</mml:mo><mml:mo>,</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\begin{equation*} u_n\equiv u_{n-1}^e\pmod {m},\quad 0\le u_n\le m-1,\quad n=1,2,\ldots , \end{equation*}</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></disp-formula>where we are given the modulus<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, the initial value<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="u 0 equals theta"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mn>0</mml:mn></mml:msub><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi>ϑ</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">u_0=\vartheta</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>and the exponent<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="e"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>e</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">e</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>. One case of particular interest is when the modulus<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>is of the form<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="p l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">pl</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, where<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="p comma l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">p,l</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>are different primes of the same magnitude. It is known from work of the first and third authors that for moduli<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m equals p l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>=</mml:mo><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m=pl</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, if the period of the sequence<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="left-parenthesis u Subscript n Baseline right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:msub><mml:mi>u</mml:mi><mml:mi>n</mml:mi></mml:msub><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">(u_n)</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>exceeds<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m Superscript 3 slash 4 plus epsilon"><mml:semantics><mml:msup><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mn>3</mml:mn><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mo>/</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mn>4</mml:mn><mml:mo>+</mml:mo><mml:mi>ε</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msup><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m^{3/4+\varepsilon }</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, then the sequence is uniformly distributed. We show rigorously that for almost all choices of<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="p comma l"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mi>l</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">p,l</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>it is the case that for almost all choices of<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="theta comma e"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>ϑ</mml:mi><mml:mo>,</mml:mo><mml:mi>e</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\vartheta ,e</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, the period of the power generator exceeds<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="left-parenthesis p l right-parenthesis Superscript 1 minus epsilon"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>p</mml:mi><mml:mi>l</mml:mi><mml:msup><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mi>ε</mml:mi></mml:mrow></mml:msup></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">(pl)^{1-\varepsilon }</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>. And so, in this case, the power generator is uniformly distributed. We also give some other cryptographic applications, namely, to ruling-out the cycling attack on the RSA cryptosystem and to so-called time-release crypto. The principal tool is an estimate related to the Carmichael function<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="lamda left-parenthesis m right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>λ</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\lambda (m)</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, the size of the largest cyclic subgroup of the multiplicative group of residues modulo<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>. In particular, we show that for any<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="normal upper Delta greater-than-or-equal-to left-parenthesis log log upper N right-parenthesis cubed"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mo>≥</mml:mo><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>log</mml:mi><mml:mo></mml:mo><mml:mi>log</mml:mi><mml:mo></mml:mo><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:msup><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mn>3</mml:mn></mml:msup></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\Delta \ge (\log \log N)^3</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, we have<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="lamda left-parenthesis m right-parenthesis greater-than-or-equal-to upper N exp left-parenthesis negative normal upper Delta right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>λ</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo><mml:mo>≥</mml:mo><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:mi>exp</mml:mi><mml:mo></mml:mo><mml:mo stretchy="false">(</mml:mo><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mo stretchy="false">)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">\lambda (m)\ge N\exp (-\Delta )</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>for all integers<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="m"><mml:semantics><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">m</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>with<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="1 less-than-or-equal-to m less-than-or-equal-to upper N"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:mi>m</mml:mi><mml:mo>≤</mml:mo><mml:mi>N</mml:mi></mml:mrow><mml:annotation encoding="application/x-tex">1\le m\le N</mml:annotation></mml:semantics></mml:math></inline-formula>, apart from at most<inline-formula content-type="math/mathml"><mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="upper N exp left-parenthesis minus 0.69 left-parenthesis normal upper Delta log normal upper Delta right-parenthesis Superscript 1 slash 3 Baseline right-parenthesis"><mml:semantics><mml:mrow><mml:mi>N</mml:mi><mml:mi>exp</mml:mi><mml:mo></mml:mo><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mo>−</mml:mo><mml:mn>0.69</mml:mn><mml:msup><mml:mrow><mml:mo>(</mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mi>log</mml:mi><mml:mo></mml:mo><mml:mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mml:mi><mml:mo>)</mml:mo></mml:mrow><mml:mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"><mml:mn>1</mml:mn><mml:
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it