Air bubble entrapment under an impacting droplet
Bibliographic record
Abstract
We simulated impact of water, n-heptane, and molten nickel droplets on a solid surface. A numerical code was developed to model the motion of both the liquid in the droplet and the surrounding air. The model used a volume-of-fluid method to track the droplet surface and assumed that only one flow field governed the motion of all the fluids present. Predicted droplet shapes during impact agreed well with photographs. When a droplet approached another surface, air in the gap between them was forced out. Increased air pressure below a droplet created a depression in its surface in which air was trapped. The magnitude of pressure rise could be predicted using a simple analysis of fluid between two solid planes moving closer together. The air bubble formed at the solid–liquid interface remained attached to the solid surface in a water droplet. In an n-heptane droplet the bubble moved away from the surface and broke into two or three smaller bubbles before escaping through the droplet surface. This difference in behavior was attributed to the contact angle of water being much larger than that of n-heptane.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".