Variability in the Astronomical Refraction of the Rising and Setting Sun
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Observed timings of 244 sunrises and 135 sunsets from two closely spaced geographic locations in Edmonton, Alberta, were used to determine astronomical refraction for the Sun's upper limb. The observed astronomical refraction had a mean of 0 669, a standard deviation of 0 175, and a range between 0 402 and 2 081. At sunrise, the astronomical refraction had a mean of 0 714, a standard deviation of 0 184, and a range between 0 402 and 2 081. At sunset, the astronomical refraction had a mean of 0 579, a standard deviation of 0 108, and a range between 0 442 and 1 085. There is a strong annual variation of the monthly mean and the monthly standard deviation of the astronomical refraction. Both parameters reach a maximum during the coldest months for sunrises and sunsets. Abnormally large refraction events—sometimes called Novaya Zemlya solar mirages—can occur in both warm and cold months.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".