Quality Indicators for the Management of Osteoarthritis in Vulnerable Elders

Quality Indicators for Assessing Care of Vulnerable Elders16 October 2001Quality Indicators for the Management of Osteoarthritis in Vulnerable EldersFREECatherine H. MacLean, MD, PhDCatherine H. MacLean, MD, PhDFrom RAND Health, Santa Monica, California; and University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.Author, Article, and Disclosure Informationhttps://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-135-8_Part_2-200110161-00010 SectionsAboutVisual AbstractPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail Osteoarthritis is the most common chronic condition affecting older persons. This condition is probably not a single disease but rather "a group of overlapping distinct diseases, which may have different etiologies but with similar biologic, morphologic, and clinical outcomes" (1). A common final result of these diseases, however, is the degeneration of articular cartilage with loss of the joint surface (1). Depending on the method of evaluation and the diagnostic criteria used, estimates of symptomatic disease prevalence range from 50% to 80% in the elderly population (2, 3).Half of all disability among older persons has been attributed to arthritis (3, 4). Osteoarthritis is associated with pain, functional disability (5, 6), and being homebound (3). Although effective therapies exist to treat this disease, many are associated with substantial toxicities. Several studies have demonstrated regional and subspecialty variations in the use of pharmacologic, nonpharmacologic, and surgical treatments (7–9). Indirect evidence suggests that these differences result in variations in outcomes and in quality of care. On the basis of a comprehensive literature review, a set of process indicators to assess the quality of health care for vulnerable elders with osteoarthritis was developed. This paper summarizes the methods used to develop these indicators and reviews the evidence on which they are based.MethodsThe methods for developing these quality indicators, including literature review and expert panel consideration, are detailed in a preceding paper (10). For osteoarthritis, the structured literature review identified 6201 titles from which abstracts and articles relevant to this report were identified. Finally, the supporting evidence was supplemented with the author's own extensive files from previous related work and with the recommendations of an external expert reviewer. On the basis of the literature and the author's expertise, 18 potential quality indicators were proposed.ResultsOf the 18 potential quality indicators, 11 were judged valid by the expert panel process (see the quality indicators) and 7 were not accepted. The literature summaries that support each of the indicators judged to be valid by the expert panel process are described below.Quality Indicator 1Assessment of Pain and Functional StatusIF a vulnerable elder is diagnosed with symptomatic osteoarthritis, THEN his or her functional status and the degree of pain should be assessed annually BECAUSE this information is necessary to direct therapeutic decisions.Supporting Evidence. The literature review identified no studies that demonstrate a direct association between the assessment of pain or function and therapeutic decision making. However, given that principal goals of treatment for osteoarthritis are to reduce pain and maximize function, such assessments are necessary to meet these treatment goals.Assessment of pain and function are implicitly recommended by the American College of Rheumatology in its guidelines for the treatment of osteoarthritis (11–13). The American Board of Family Practice specifically recommends assessing both pain and functional status during the evaluation of patients with arthritis (14).Quality Indicator 2Aspiration of Hot JointsIF a vulnerable elder has monoarticular joint pain associated with redness, warmth, or swelling AND the patient also has an oral temperature greater than 38.0 °C and does not have a previously established diagnosis of pseudogout or gout, THEN a diagnostic aspiration of the painfully swollen red joint should be performed that day BECAUSE this sign–symptom complex is common with joint infection, and it requires treatment that is different than that for osteoarthritis.Supporting Evidence. No studies directly describe the relationship between the aspiration of painful, swollen, red joints in the presence of fever and establishment of a diagnosis of a septic joint. This sign–symptom complex is uncommon in uncomplicated osteoarthritis, however, and its presence raises the possibility that the affected joint may be septic. Given that an untreated septic joint can rapidly lead to joint destruction and that joint aspiration is necessary to make the diagnosis of a septic joint, it would seem prudent to aspirate in the described scenario.The American College of Rheumatology, guideline statements, and numerous textbooks of medicine recommend aspiration in this clinical setting (11–13, 15, 16).Quality Indicators 3 and 4Exercise Therapy for Patients with Newly Diagnosed DiseaseIF an ambulatory vulnerable elder is newly diagnosed with osteoarthritis of the knee, has no contraindication to exercise, and is physically and mentally able to exercise, THEN a directed or supervised strengthening or aerobic exercise program should be prescribed within 3 months of diagnosis BECAUSE such programs improve functional status and reduce pain.Exercise Therapy for Patients with Prevalent DiseaseIF an ambulatory vulnerable elder has had a diagnosis of symptomatic osteoarthritis of the knee for longer than 12 months, has no contraindication to exercise, and is physically and mentally able to exercise, THEN there should be evidence that a directed or supervised strengthening or aerobic exercise program was prescribed at least once since the time of diagnosis BECAUSE such programs improve functional status and reduce pain.Supporting Evidence. The literature review identified one relevant systematic review and an additional randomized, controlled trial that was published after the systematic review. In the systematic review, van Baar and colleagues (17) evaluated the effectiveness of exercise therapy for osteoarthritis of the knee or hip. Among the randomized clinical trials on exercise therapy for osteoarthritis that were generated from a computerized search, the authors identified 11 trials that reported the effect of aerobic or strengthening exercise programs on pain, self-reported disability, observed disability in walking, or patient-rated global assessment (18–27). Most patients enrolled in these studies were older than 60 years of age. Effect sizes for these outcomes could be calculated, and were reported, for 9 of these studies (18–24, 26, 27). The effect size is calculated by dividing the observed result by the standard deviation for that result, producing a unitless outcome that is useful for comparing studies that report outcomes in the same domain (that is, pain) but use different instruments. Among the 6 studies that evaluated the effect of exercise on pain, 4 demonstrated statistically significant (small to medium) effect sizes (18, 19, 21, 22). Four of the 5 studies that recorded self-reported disability reported statistically significant positive effects associated with exercise (18, 19, 22, 26). Four studies reported the effect of exercise on observed disability in walking. In 3 of these studies (18, 19, 22), the effect size was positive, with small or large effect sizes; in 1 study (7), it was negative. All results were statistically significant. The effect of exercise on patient global assessment was evaluated in 2 studies; the effect sizes were medium and large (both statistically significant) (18, 21).One additional trial that evaluated the effect of exercise among patients with osteoarthritis was published after the systematic review (28). In this study, 83 patients with knee osteoarthritis were randomly assigned to a 4-week physical therapy regimen or to a control group. The physical therapy regimen included manual therapy of the knee by a trained physical therapist and a standardized knee exercise program in the clinic and at home. The control group received subtherapeutic knee ultrasonography and no exercise. At 8 weeks, 6-minute walk times and functional status, measured by the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC), were clinically and statistically significantly better in the treatment group than in the control group.The American College of Rheumatology (11, 12), the American Board of Family Practice (14), and the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (29) recommend exercise for the treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee and hip.Quality Indicators 5 and 6Patient Education for Incident DiseaseIF an ambulatory vulnerable elder is diagnosed with symptomatic osteoarthritis THEN education regarding the natural history, treatment, and self-management of the disease should be offered at least once within 6 months of diagnosis BECAUSE such education produces improvements in physical functioning and pain.Patient Education for Prevalent DiseaseIF a patient COX has had a diagnosis of symptomatic osteoarthritis for 12 months or longer THEN there should be evidence that the patient was offered education regarding the natural history, treatment, and self-management of the disease at least once since the time of diagnosis BECAUSE such education produces improvements in physical functioning and pain.Supporting Evidence. The literature search identified two meta-analyses (30, 31) and seven reviews (32–38) that addressed the effect of patient education on outcomes among patients with rheumatoid or osteoarthritis. Because these meta-analyses and reviews reported data from more than 60 different reports and came to similar conclusions, only the results from the most recent meta-analysis and the studies included in that report are discussed here.The most recent meta-analysis, published in 1996, differentiated between trials that were performed in patients with osteoarthritis, those performed among patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and those performed among patients with combined arthritis (30). Nineteen studies were included in the meta-analysis. In 10 of those studies, the study sample exclusively or primarily included patients with osteoarthritis.The study calculated and reported effect sizes for the effect of patient education on pain and disability. Effect size was calculated as change in the intervention group minus change in the control group divided by the pooled pretreatment standard deviation. Therefore, positive effect sizes indicate that the intervention group had greater improvement in the outcome of interest than the control group; negative effect sizes indicate that the control group had greater improvement than the intervention group. All effect sizes were weighted for sample size. Table 1 summarizes the results of these calculations. No statistically significant differences were seen between the groups.Table 1. Effect of Patient Education on Pain and Disability among Patients with Arthritis The individual studies reported in this meta-analysis were also reviewed. In each of them, the mean age was older than 60 years. Among the 10 studies pertaining to osteoarthritis (39–48), a total of 20 treatment groups included an education intervention. Pain improved in 13 of these groups and worsened in 7. Disability improved in 11 of these groups, worsened in 7, and was unchanged in 2. In 2 of the studies, the effect of education was confounded by co-interventions, thus making it impossible to definitively attribute the outcome to either intervention (41, 44).The guidelines for the treatment of osteoarthritis published by the American College of Rheumatology (11, 12) and by the American Board of Family Practice (14) cite education as a nonpharmacologic treatment option, but they do not specifically advocate its use in all patients.Quality Indicators 7, 8, and 9First-Line Pharmacologic TherapyIF oral pharmacologic therapy is initiated to treat osteoarthritis in a vulnerable elder, THEN acetaminophen should be the first drug used, unless there is a documented contraindication to use, BECAUSE this agent is as effective in treating osteoarthritis as other oral agents, and it is less toxic.Treatment Failure for First-Line Pharmacologic TherapyIF oral pharmacologic therapy for osteoarthritis in a vulnerable elder is changed from acetaminophen to a different oral agent, THEN there should be evidence that the patient has had a trial of maximum-dose acetaminophen (suitable for age and comorbid conditions) BECAUSE acetaminophen, in adequate doses, is as effective in treating osteoarthritis as other oral agents, and it is less toxic.Informing Patients about the Risks of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory DrugsIF a patient is treated with a COX nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), THEN there should be evidence that the patient was advised of the risk for gastrointestinal bleeding associated with these drugs BECAUSE this risk is substantial.Supporting Evidence. Oral agents available to treat osteoarthritis include acetaminophen, NSAIDs, the newly approved COX-2 selective NSAIDs, and opioid analgesics.Three trials, including one that was published after the panel meeting (49), have compared the efficacy of acetaminophen with nonselective NSAIDs. In one double-blind study (50), 184 patients with osteoarthritis of the knee were randomly assigned to receive acetaminophen, 4000 mg/d; ibuprofen, 1200 mg/d; or ibuprofen, 2400 mg/d. After 4 weeks, Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ) pain scores improved by 10% to 12% in all groups (P < 0.05). Walking and rest pain improved by 10% to 15% in the ibuprofen groups (P < 0.05). Small improvements in the 50-foot walk time and HAQ disability score were observed in the acetaminophen group. However, comparisons of the three treatment groups showed no statistically significant differences in any of the outcome variables except for rest pain; patients treated with ibuprofen, 1200 mg/d, had greater improvement in rest pain than patients taking acetaminophen.Similar results were reported in a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial that compared the efficacy of naproxen, 375 mg twice daily, with acetaminophen, 650 mg four times daily, among patients with osteoarthritis (51). After 4 weeks of treatment, rest pain had improved 35% in the naproxen group (P = 0.001) but had not improved in the acetaminophen group (P = 0.008 for between-group comparison). Although improvements in pain on motion, 50-foot walk time, and physician assessment were also reported for the naproxen and acetaminophen groups, no differences between groups were found.The most recent study (49), a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial, compared the efficacy of the combination of diclofenac and misoprostol, 75 mg and 200 µg twice daily, and acetaminophen, 1000 mg four times daily, among 218 patients with osteoarthritis. Improvements in pain (measured by WOMAC) and in function (measured by the modified HAQ) were similar among patients with mild osteoarthritis, but the diclofenac–misoprostol combination was favored for patients with moderate or severe osteoarthritis (P < 0.001). No studies that compared the efficacy of acetaminophen and COX-2 selective NSAIDs were found.Two meta-analyses have addressed the relative efficacy of different nonselective NSAIDs in treating osteoarthritis. One of these meta-analyses focused on studies pertaining to osteoarthritis of the hip (52), and the other focused on studies pertaining to osteoarthritis of the knee (53). Neither meta-analysis could demonstrate differences in efficacy among different traditional NSAIDs.One study was identified that compared the efficacy of celecoxib, a COX-2 selective NSAID, with that of naproxen in osteoarthritis (54). In this 12-week multicenter trial, 1003 patients with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis were randomly assigned to receive celecoxib (50, 100, or 200 mg twice daily), naproxen (500 mg twice daily), or placebo. Outcomes reported at 12 weeks included pain measured on a visual analogue scale; patient and physician global assessment; the Osteoarthritis Severity Index, which measures pain, walking distance, and activities of daily living; and the WOMAC Osteoarthritis Index, which is composed of items pertaining to pain, stiffness, and physical function. Pain and physical function measures improved significantly in patients treated with celecoxib or naproxen compared with placebo. The celecoxib group and the naproxen group did not differ for any of the outcomes assessed in this study.No studies were identified that compared the efficacy of opioid analgesics with that of nonselective or COX-2–selective NSAIDs or selective COX inhibitors. However, one randomized, controlled trial was identified that compared opioid analgesics with acetaminophen (55). This study compared the effect of paracetamol with that of paracetamol plus codeine on pain and patient-related global assessment in patients with osteoarthritis of the hip. No statistically significant differences were seen for either variable.Data on the relative toxicities of traditional NSAIDs come from a large literature. Serious NSAID toxicities, primarily related to gastrointestinal perforations, ulcerations, and bleeding episodes, have been studied in numerous clinical trials, case–control studies, and large population-based cohort studies. Several meta-analyses have evaluated the relationship between NSAIDs and gastrointestinal perforations, ulcers, and bleeding episodes and have reported similar findings. Among these meta-analyses, one pooled data from 7 cohort and 27 case–control studies and reported that the overall risk ratio for "NSAID-related gastrointestinal tract disease" was 3.5 (95% CI, 2.8 to 4.5) (56). Another meta-analysis reviewed 16 cohort and case–controls studies and reported that the overall pooled odds ratio was 2.74 (CI, 2.54 to 2.97) for serious gastrointestinal complications; among patients 60 years of age and older, the odds ratio was 5.52 (CI, 4.63 to 6.60) (57).Several studies have evaluated the gastrointestinal toxicities of nonselective NSAIDs specifically in elderly populations. In a nested case–control study of patients at least 65 years of age, Griffin and associates (58) reported that the relative risk for the development of peptic ulcer disease was 4.1 (CI, 3.5 to 4.7) among current users of NSAIDs compared with nonusers. A randomized, controlled trial of the effect of misoprostol on NSAID-related gastrointestinal toxicities also reported data on the risk for NSAID-induced gastrointestinal toxicities among elders (59). This study reported that among patients 75 years of age and older, the odds ratio for the development of serious gastrointestinal events was 2.48 (CI, 1.48 to 4.14) relative to younger patients.Data from three studies on symptomatic gastrointestinal toxicities of COX-2 selective NSAIDs were reported to the expert panel. Since the panel meeting, two additional studies (60, 61) have been published and are also described here. The first study was a prespecified analysis of eight randomized, double-blind trials that compared rofecoxib with placebo, nonselective NSAIDs (including ibuprofen, diclofenac, and nabumetone), or both for the treatment of osteoarthritis (62). The 3690 patients (67.9%) who completed the primary trials were included in the analysis. In this analysis, the cumulative 12-month incidence of confirmed gastrointestinal perforations, symptomatic ulcers, and upper gastrointestinal bleeding was 1.3% for rofecoxib over 1428 patient-years and 1.8% for nonselective NSAIDs over 615 patient-years (P = 0.046) (27% reduction in incidence for rofecoxib compared with naproxen). The rate per 100 patient-years was 1.33 for rofecoxib and 2.60 for the nonselective NSAIDs (relative risk, 0.51 [CI, 0.26 to 1.00]). The drugs differed in cumulative incidence of dyspeptic symptoms at 6 months (23.5% vs. 25.5% [P = 0.02] among patients treated with rofecoxib and those treated with nonselective NSAIDs, respectively) but not at 12 months.The second study that reported clinical gastrointestinal outcomes for COX-2 selective NSAIDs compared the efficacy of celecoxib, naproxen, and placebo among patients with knee osteoarthritis (54). In this study, the reported incidence of gastrointestinal adverse events was 22%, 24% to 28%, and 32% for patients treated with placebo, celecoxib at various doses, and naproxen, respectively (statistical significance was not reported).Likewise, the third study was primarily an efficacy study but also reported clinical safety data. In this double-blind, multicenter study, patients with rheumatoid arthritis were randomly assigned to receive celecoxib (100, 200, or 400 mg twice daily), naproxen (500 mg twice daily), or placebo (63). The combined incidence of the most frequently reported gastrointestinal adverse events (dyspepsia, diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and flatulence) was 19%, 25% to 28%, and 31% for placebo, celecoxib, and naproxen, respectively (statistical significance was not reported).More recently, two large multicenter studies have been reported that were specifically designed to compare the upper gastrointestinal toxicities of COX-2 selective and nonselective NSAIDs. In the Vioxx Gastrointestinal Outcomes Research (VIGOR) study, a multicenter, double-blind trial, 8076 patients with rheumatoid arthritis were randomly assigned to receive rofecoxib (50 mg/d) or naproxen (500 mg twice daily) (60). Aspirin use, including aspirin for cardiovascular prophylaxis, was not permitted. Efficacy and overall mortality were similar for the two agents, but adverse events differed. Higher rates of serious upper gastrointestinal events were seen in the naproxen group, and higher rates of myocardial infarction were seen in the rofecoxib group. During a median follow-up of 9 months, the incidence of serious upper gastrointestinal events (perforations, obstructions, severe bleeding) was 0.6 per 100 patient-years for rofecoxib and 1.4 per 100 patient-years for naproxen (relative risk, 0.4 [CI, 0.2 to 0.8]). The incidence of myocardial infarction was 0.1% in the naproxen group and 0.4% in the rofecoxib group (relative risk, 0.2 [CI, 0.1 to 0.7]).The Celecoxib Long-Term Arthritis Safety Study (CLASS), a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial, evaluated the incidence of symptomatic gastrointestinal ulcers and ulcer complications among 7968 patients with rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis (61). Patients were treated with celecoxib, 400 mg twice daily; ibuprofen, 800 mg three times daily; or diclofenac, 75 mg twice daily for 6 months or longer. Aspirin use for cardiovascular protection was allowed in this study. Among 2244 patients not taking aspirin, the annualized incidence of upper gastrointestinal ulcer complications for celecoxib and the other NSAIDs was 0.44% and 1.27%, respectively (P = 0.04); annual incidence of upper gastrointestinal ulcer complications combined with symptomatic ulcers was 1.4% for celecoxib and 2.91% for the other NSAIDs (P = 0.02). Among 581 patients who were taking aspirin, those taking celecoxib and those taking other NSAIDs did not differ in annual incidence of upper gastrointestinal ulcer complications alone or combined with symptomatic ulcers.Neither acetaminophen nor narcotic analgesics are associated with gastrointestinal ulcerations or bleeding episodes. Narcotic analgesics are, however, associated with constipation, sedation, and cognitive impairment.The American College of Rheumatology guidelines for the medical management of osteoarthritis of the hip and knee state that acetaminophen should be the pharmacologic therapy for symptomatic patients (11, The American Board of Family Practice also acetaminophen as the pharmacologic agent for treating osteoarthritis (14).Quality Indicator with of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory DrugsIF a vulnerable elder is older than 75 years of age, is treated with or has a of peptic ulcer disease or gastrointestinal AND is being treated with a COX nonselective NSAID, THEN or should be offered treatment with either misoprostol or a BECAUSE this reduce the risk for NSAID-induced gastrointestinal Evidence. The literature search identified one trial that assessed the effect of any agent on clinically upper gastrointestinal toxicities from NSAIDs. This multicenter, randomized, double-blind, trial evaluated the of serious gastrointestinal effects among nonselective NSAID users who were randomly assigned to receive misoprostol or placebo in to nonselective NSAID (59). The age, were for gastrointestinal During the 2 years of the study, serious gastrointestinal events were reported among the patients in the misoprostol group and serious gastrointestinal events were reported among the patients in the placebo group [P < for between-group the study authors evaluated the effects of patient as as the effect of treatment, on the risk for serious gastrointestinal identified the risk for gastrointestinal age at least 75 years 2.48 [CI, 1.48 to of peptic ulcer [CI, to of gastrointestinal bleeding [CI, to and of disease [CI, to with misoprostol the risk for serious gastrointestinal events by [CI, to literature review did not any studies that assessed the effect of or on clinically gastrointestinal However, studies that assessed the effect of these agents on outcomes were identified. A meta-analysis, which included clinical trials, assessed the effect of misoprostol and on the development of among patients treated with nonselective NSAIDs This study demonstrated for misoprostol compared with placebo for the development of ulcers and ulcers and for compared with placebo for the development of ulcers 2. of and on the of among Patients with Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory randomized, controlled trials with similar the for and the for Management study, described the effect of on of these studies enrolled patients who nonselective NSAID therapy and had ulcers or more than 10 in the or the studies assessed the effects of and and and misoprostol on the of ulcers and In each study assessed treatment with these agents after could In both studies, of and ulcers was demonstrated in more than two of the patients in each study group, the of patients with of or ulcers was higher for than for or misoprostol Among patients with or 50% or more of those treated with or misoprostol in after 6 A significantly greater of patients who received in compared with those who received Patients treated with and those treated with did not differ 4). The literature review identified no studies that directly evaluated the relationship between and clinical of and on Prevalent and among Patients with Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory of the from and the Study Table of and on the of and among Patients with Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory of the from and the Study The American College of recommends the use of misoprostol in patients treated with NSAIDs who are at risk for or that are an and specifically that be recommended for The American College of Rheumatology guidelines for the medical management of osteoarthritis of the hip and knee that misoprostol is the only drug approved by the and for NSAID-induced upper gastrointestinal complications The guidelines also state that there is evidence to recommend the use of

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