Multiple lines of anti-predator defence in the spotted lanternfly,<i>Lycorma delicatula</i>(Hemiptera: Fulgoridae)
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Many species have evolved a suite of anti-predator defences, rather than a single defence. These multiple defences may operate in synchrony or separately at different stages of predation sequence to protect the prey. However, empirical documentation on how multiple defences, as a whole, combine to protect prey, as well as quantitative evaluations of how and when they are deployed, are scarce. In the present study, we investigated the univoltine spotted lanternfly, Lycorma delicatula, which has cryptic forewings, defensive chemicals, and multiple behavioural defences, including rapid jumping away, sudden display of its conspicuous hindwings and abdomen (a startle/deimatic display), and death feigning. The aims of the present study were to: (1) characterize the modality of sensory stimuli that trigger the behavioural defences; (2) identify the stage(s) of the predation sequence in which L. delicatula employs each behavioural defence; and (3) investigate a range of intrinsic/extrinsic factors that might affect the execution of anti-predator responses. First, a preliminary test that simulated a range of sensory stimuli on L. delicatula suggested that they rarely responded to nontactile stimuli. This suggests that the species relies on crypsis as a primary defence unless it is physically contacted. Next, we simulated predatory attacks on the species at two different times of year (early and late season as adults). When physically contacted, the primary response of individuals was jumping away. However, when jumping was initially hindered (by grabbing), they then tended to employ deimatic display. Intriguingly, we found clear seasonal differences in these post-attack defences: after performing deimatic display, individuals were more likely to jump away in the early season, whereas death feigning was more frequent in the late season. We present adaptive explanations for this seasonal switch in anti-predator responses.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".