Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract This paper summarises the history of urban parks, primarily in the United States and in western Europe, throughout the twentieth century and in the early twenty-first century. In terms of park design this shows a transition from early pastoral models, via form-driven Beaux-Arts and City Beautiful models, to function-driven modernist approaches to park design and, latterly, ecologically-driven approaches that treat parks as elements of urban green infrastructure. These transitions demonstrate the influence of the zeitgeist in the two-way transfer of approaches to park design between the two continents. These approaches to the design of urban parks reflect changes in the social and political purposes for which they were intended, evolving from being seen as escapes from infernal cities, then as places for active physical recreation (including the preparation of young men for war) and latterly as principal components of urban open space systems. Equally, the importance attached to these evolving purposes has been reflected in the public funds made available for their creation and maintenance, with post World War II suburbanisation leading to severe decline in the condition and facilities in parks in both continents. Latterly urban densification has prompted higher levels of private and central government funding, while local government funding has fallen as a result of priority being given to statutory services.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".