SpyDroid: A Framework for Employing Multiple Real-Time Malware Detectors on Android
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Android has become the leading operating system for next-generation smart devices. Consequently, the number of Android malware has also skyrocketed. Many dynamic analysis techniques have been proposed to detect Android malware. However, very few of these techniques use real-time monitoring on user devices as Android does not provide low-level information to third-party apps. Moreover, some techniques detect a specific malware class more effectively than others. Therefore, end users can be benefited by installing multiple malware detection techniques. In this paper, we propose SpyDroid, a real-time malware detection framework that can accommodate multiple detectors from third-parties (e.g., researchers and antivirus vendors) and allows efficient and controlled real-time monitoring. SpyDroid consists of two operating system modules (monitoring and detection) and supports application layer sub-detectors. Sub-detectors are regular Android applications that monitor and analyze different runtime information using the monitoring module and they report the detection module about their findings. The detection module decides when to mark an app as malware. Researchers and antivirus vendors can now publish their techniques via app markets and end users can install any number of sub-detectors as they require. We have implemented SpyDroid using the Android Open Source Project (AOSP) and our experiments with a dataset containing 4,965 apps show that decisions from multiple sub-detectors can increase the malware detection rate significantly on a real device.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.006 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.005 |
| Open science | 0.005 | 0.005 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.002 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".