From Tower to the Bastion. Changes in Fortress Design to Accommodate Gunpowder Artillery (14th to 16th Centuries)
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The authors set out the key turning points in the evolution of defensive architecture in response to the appearance of firearms in the 1st quarter of the 14th century in Europe, for both attack and defence. Between the first adaptations to defences during the middle of the 14th century to the emergence of geometric whole defensive systems based on low-lying bastions and interconnected outworks in the 16th century, there was a long period of evolution, experimentation and development, responding to continuous improvement in the range and destructive power of gunpowder artillery. New designs of castles, fortresses and town walls focussed on the need to shield high medieval walls and towers against the power of the gun, but also on how to mount guns on defences and integrate loop holes to keep an attacker as far away as possible. Ideas diffused rapidly across Europe and the Muslim world. Factors such as the builder’s wealth and the purpose of the fortress also determined what was constructed
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.006 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.009 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".