Multi-sensor integrated navigation/positioning systems using data fusion: From analytics-based to learning-based approaches
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Navigation/positioning systems have become critical to many applications, such as autonomous driving, Internet of Things (IoT), Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), and smart cities. However, it is difficult to provide a robust, accurate, and seamless solution with single navigation/positioning technology. For example, the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) cannot perform satisfactorily indoors; consequently, multi-sensor integrated systems provide the solution, as they compensate for the limitations of single technology by using the complementary characteristics of different sensors. This article describes a thorough investigation into multi-sensor data fusion, which over the last ten years has been used for integrated positioning/navigation systems. In this article, different navigation/positioning systems are classified and elaborated upon from three aspects: (1) sources, (2) algorithms and architectures, and (3) scenarios, which we further divide into two categories: (i) analytics-based fusion and (ii) learning-based fusion. For analytics-based fusion, we discuss the Kalman filter and its variants, graph optimization methods, and integrated schemes. For learning-based fusion, several supervised, unsupervised, reinforcement learning, and deep learning techniques are illustrated in multi-sensor integrated positioning/navigation systems. Design consideration of these integrated systems is discussed in detail from several aspects and their application scenarios are categorized. Finally, future directions for their research and implementation are discussed.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".