A comparison of three algorithms in the filtering of a Markov-modulated non-homogeneous Poisson process
Why this work is in the frame
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
A Markov-modulated non-homogeneous Poisson process (MMNPP), whose intensity process is designed to capture both the cyclical and nonrecurring trends, is considered for modelling the total count of cyber incidents. Extending the Expectation-Maximisation (EM) algorithm for the current MMPP literature, we derive the filters and smoothers to support the MMNPP online parameter estimation. A scaling transformation is introduced to address the numerical issue for large data sizes whilst maintaining accuracy. The filter- and smoother-based EM algorithms are then benchmarked to the maximum likelihood-based EM algorithm at the theoretical level. The differences emerge in the E-step of the EM procedure. Both the filtering and smoothing schemes, in conjunction with the change-of-measure technique, avoid the computing complication caused by the hidden regimes. In contrast to the usual EM algorithm, the said two algorithms could be implemented given only the incident counts data without the specific times of jumps. Within the data compiled by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the filter-based algorithm performs better than the algorithm involving smoothers. The benchmarked algorithm may do well in calibration under the presence of extreme incident counts with an extremely low frequency; however, overfitting may occur. For most practical applications involving 2 or 3 regimes, both algorithms are superior when it comes to efficiency, real-time update, and low computational cost. The benchmarked algorithm is better when there are more regimes under relatively closer intensities. Overall, the filter-based algorithm gives better estimation, especially if there is a low-frequency regime and the flexible binning of the data set is an important consideration.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it