A Twin-Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient Approach for UAV Formation Control
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This paper explores the use of a Twin-Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3) approach for the formation control of multiple Uncrewed Aerial Vehicles (multi-UAVs). A leader-follower configuration is adopted. The proposed TD3 algorithm integrates the Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG) algorithm with the double$Q-\mathbf{learning}$technique, creating a continuous controller for the formation tracking of multi-UAVs. Unlike the DDPG, TD3 utilizes two$Q-\mathbf{networks}$that explore the environment independently, selecting the smaller$Q-\mathbf{values}$to compute targets and update the$Q-\mathbf{functions}$. Additionally, the target action policy is constrained within a valid action range, and updates are deliberately delayed to prevent the exploitation of erroneous experiences. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".