Leadership Styles and International Agenda-Setting: Understanding Small-State and Middle-Power Leadership on the Responsibility to Protect
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Small states and middle powers suffer from a “power deficit” that leaves them with limited means and opportunities to exercise coercive power in international relations. Nevertheless, a growing number of studies has documented the success of these states in influencing international affairs. This study examines how different leadership styles matter for small-state and middle-power agenda-setting in international affairs. Drawing on recent advances in management theory and foreign policy analysis, we construct a typology of foreign policy leadership styles. Rather than viewing leadership as the personal style or characteristic of an individual leader, we understand leadership as positional, relational, and processual styles. We apply our typology to Canadian, Swedish, and Danish diplomatic activities to promote and influence the Responsibility to Protect agenda in the UN. We find all three leadership styles, but a dominance of processual leadership, especially enabling leadership, which supports the creation of emergent fora in which ideas and concepts can develop among different kinds of actors and the transmission of insights from these fora back into a more formalized context.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.005 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.008 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.005 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".