LLMs as Judges: Toward The Automatic Review of GSN-compliant Assurance Cases
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Assurance cases allow verifying the correct implementation of certain non-functional requirements of mission-critical systems, including their safety, security, and reliability. They can be used in the specification of autonomous driving, avionics, air traffic control, and similar systems. They aim to reduce risks of harm of all kinds including human mortality, environmental damage, and financial loss. However, assurance cases often tend to be organized as extensive documents spanning hundreds of pages, making their creation, review, and maintenance error-prone, time-consuming, and tedious. Therefore, there is a growing need to leverage (semi-)automated techniques, such as those powered by generative AI and large language models (LLMs), to enhance efficiency, consistency, and accuracy across the entire assurance-case lifecycle. In this paper, we focus on assurance case review, a critical task that ensures the quality of assurance cases and therefore fosters their acceptance by regulatory authorities. We propose a novel approach that leverages the \textit{LLM-as-a-judge} paradigm to automate the review process. Specifically, we propose new predicate-based rules that formalize well-established assurance case review criteria, allowing us to craft LLM prompts tailored to the review task. Our experiments on several state-of-the-art LLMs (GPT-4o, GPT-4.1, DeepSeek-R1, and Gemini 2.0 Flash) show that, while most LLMs yield relatively good review capabilities, DeepSeek-R1 and GPT-4.1 demonstrate superior performance, with DeepSeek-R1 ultimately outperforming GPT-4.1. However, our experimental results also suggest that human reviewers are still needed to refine the reviews LLMs yield.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.034 | 0.197 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.006 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.007 | 0.009 |
| Open science | 0.004 | 0.007 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.005 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".