The “LSGGQ” Motif in Each Nucleotide-binding Domain of Human P-glycoprotein Is Adjacent to the Opposing Walker A Sequence

The human multidrug resistance P-glycoprotein (P-gp, ABCB1), a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) family of transport proteins, actively transports many cytotoxic compounds out of the cell. ABC transporters have two nucleotide-binding domains (NBD) and two transmembrane domains. The presence of the conserved “signature” sequence (LSGGQ) in each NBD is a unique feature in these transporters. The function of the signature sequences is unknown. In this study, we tested whether the signature sequences (531LSGGQ535 in NBD1;1176LSGGQ1180 in NBD2) in P-gp are in close proximity to the opposing Walker A consensus nucleotide-binding sequences (1070GSSGCGKS1077 in NBD2;427GNSGCGKS434 in NBD1). Pairs of cysteines were introduced into a Cys-less P-gp at the signature and “Walker A” sites and the mutant P-gps were subjected to oxidative cross-linking. At 4 °C, when thermal motion is low, P-gp mutants (L531C(Signature)/C1074(Walker A) and C431(Walker A)/L1176C(Signature) were cross-linked. Cross-linking inhibited the drug-stimulated ATPase activities of these two mutants. Their activities were restored, however, after addition of the reducing agent, dithiothreitol. Vanadate trapping of nucleotide at the ATP-binding sites prevented cross-linking of the mutants. These results indicate that the signature sequences are adjacent to the opposing Walker A site. They likely participate in forming the ATP-binding sites and are displaced upon ATP hydrolysis. The resulting conformational change may be the signal responsible for coupling ATP hydrolysis to drug transport by inducing conformational changes in the transmembrane segments. The human multidrug resistance P-glycoprotein (P-gp, ABCB1), a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) family of transport proteins, actively transports many cytotoxic compounds out of the cell. ABC transporters have two nucleotide-binding domains (NBD) and two transmembrane domains. The presence of the conserved “signature” sequence (LSGGQ) in each NBD is a unique feature in these transporters. The function of the signature sequences is unknown. In this study, we tested whether the signature sequences (531LSGGQ535 in NBD1;1176LSGGQ1180 in NBD2) in P-gp are in close proximity to the opposing Walker A consensus nucleotide-binding sequences (1070GSSGCGKS1077 in NBD2;427GNSGCGKS434 in NBD1). Pairs of cysteines were introduced into a Cys-less P-gp at the signature and “Walker A” sites and the mutant P-gps were subjected to oxidative cross-linking. At 4 °C, when thermal motion is low, P-gp mutants (L531C(Signature)/C1074(Walker A) and C431(Walker A)/L1176C(Signature) were cross-linked. Cross-linking inhibited the drug-stimulated ATPase activities of these two mutants. Their activities were restored, however, after addition of the reducing agent, dithiothreitol. Vanadate trapping of nucleotide at the ATP-binding sites prevented cross-linking of the mutants. These results indicate that the signature sequences are adjacent to the opposing Walker A site. They likely participate in forming the ATP-binding sites and are displaced upon ATP hydrolysis. The resulting conformational change may be the signal responsible for coupling ATP hydrolysis to drug transport by inducing conformational changes in the transmembrane segments. P-glycoprotein ATP-binding cassette dithiothreitol nucleotide-binding domain NH2-terminal NBD COOH-terminal NBD transmembrane human embryonic kidney The human multidrug resistance P-glycoprotein (P-gp)1 is a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) family of transporters (1Higgins C.F. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1992; 8: 67-113Crossref PubMed Scopus (3375) Google Scholar). It transports a wide variety of structurally diverse compounds of different sizes (recently reviewed in Ref. 2Ambudkar S.V. Dey S. Hrycyna C.A. Ramachandra M. Pastan I. Gottesman M.M. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1999; 39: 361-398Crossref PubMed Scopus (1924) Google Scholar). The 1280 amino acids of P-gp are organized in two repeating units of 610 amino acids that are joined by a linker region of about 60 amino acids (3Chen C.J. Chin J.E. Ueda K. Clark D.P. Pastan I. Gottesman M.M. Roninson I.B. Cell. 1986; 47: 381-389Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1717) Google Scholar). Each repeat has six transmembrane (TM) segments and a hydrophilic domain containing an ATP-binding site (3Chen C.J. Chin J.E. Ueda K. Clark D.P. Pastan I. Gottesman M.M. Roninson I.B. Cell. 1986; 47: 381-389Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1717) Google Scholar, 4Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 843-848Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar). The minimum functional unit is a monomer (5Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 27488-27492Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar), but the two halves of the molecule do not have to be covalently linked for function (6Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 7750-7755Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 7Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 24759-24765Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar). A potentially important region of P-gp is the “signature” sequences (LSGGQ) in each NBD. The signature sequences are present in all ABC transporters, but not in any other transporter (1Higgins C.F. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 1992; 8: 67-113Crossref PubMed Scopus (3375) Google Scholar). The function of these sequences is unknown. Both NBDs must interact with each other, since both halves of P-gp are required for drug-stimulated ATPase activity (8Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 22957-22961Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (174) Google Scholar, 9Senior A.E. Gadsby D.C. Semin. Cancer Biol. 1997; 8: 143-150Crossref PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar). Therefore, it is possible that the conserved signature sequence in each NBD may interact with Walker A consensus nucleotide-binding sequence (Walker A site) (10Walker J.E. Saraste M. Runswick M.J. Gay N.J. EMBO J. 1982; 1: 945-951Crossref PubMed Scopus (4257) Google Scholar) in the opposing NBD. In this study, we used cysteine-scanning mutagenesis and cross-linking analysis to test whether the signature sequence in each NBD is close to the site in the opposing NBD. A histidine-tagged Cys-less P-gp was constructed (4Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 843-848Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar, 11Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 21449-21452Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (190) Google Scholar). Cysteines were re-introduced into the Cys-less P-gp in the signature sequences (531LSGGQ535 in NBD1 and 1176LSGGQ1180 in NBD2) and in the Walker A sites (427GNSGCGKS434 in NBD1 and1070GSSGCGKS1077 in NBD2) (12Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 35388-35392Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (118) Google Scholar). The mutant cDNAs were expressed in HEK 293 cells in the presence of cyclosporin A (13Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 709-712Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (219) Google Scholar) and membranes prepared as described previously (11Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 21449-21452Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (190) Google Scholar, 14Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1993; 268: 19965-19972Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). For cross-linking, aliquots of membranes were added to equal volumes of TBS containing 1 mmCu2+(phenanthroline)3. The samples were incubated for 30 min at 4 °C, 15 min at 21 °C, or 5 min at 37 °C. The reactions were stopped by addition of SDS sample buffer (125 mm Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 20% (v/v) glycerol, and 4% (w/v) SDS) containing 50 mm EDTA and no reducing agent. The reaction mixtures were subjected to SDS-PAGE (7.5% polyacrylamide gels) and immunoblot analysis with a rabbit polyclonal antibody against P-gp (5Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 27488-27492Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar). For vanadate trapping experiments, the membranes were incubated with an equal volume of TBS containing 12 mm ATP, 24 mmMgCl2, and 0.6 mm sodium vanadate for 10 min at 37 °C before cross-linking at 4, 21, or 37 °C. Purification of histidine-tagged P-gp mutants and assay of verapamil-stimulated ATPase activities were done as described previously (15Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2000; 92: 898-902Crossref PubMed Scopus (96) Google Scholar). The contact sites between the NBDs of P-gp are not known. It is possible that the conserved signature sequence in each NBD (531LSGGQ535 in NBD1 and1176LSGGQ1180 in NDB2) may interact with the Walker A site (427GNSGCGKS434 in NBD1 and1070GSSGCGKS1077 in NBD2) in the opposing NBD. Accordingly, we used disulfide cross-linking analysis to determine whether a cysteine introduced into the signature sequence in one NBD could be cross-linked to another cysteine introduced into the Walker A site in the opposing NBD. P-gp is an ideal membrane protein for cross-linking analysis because the Cys-less form of P-gp is functional and the cross-linked product migrates with reduced mobility on SDS-PAGE (16Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 27482-27487Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar, 17Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 19435-19438Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar, 18Urbatsch I.L. Gimi K. Wilke-Mounts S. Lerner-Marmarosh N. Rousseau M.E. Gros P. Senior A.E. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 26980-26987Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar, 19Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 3511-3516Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar). Cross-linking was done at three different temperatures, 4, 21, and 37 °C. At 4 °C, the thermal motion of the protein would be reduced so that cross-linking should occur only if the cysteines are close together (20Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 5253-5256Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar), while cross-linking of more distal cysteines would be expected only at higher temperatures (21 and 37 °C). The cross-linking results of three mutants, L531C/G1070C, L531C/S1072C, and L531C/C1074, are shown in Fig. 1. No cross-linked product was detected in mutant L531C/G1070C at any temperature. In mutant L531C/S1072C, no cross-linked product was detected when treated with oxidant at 4 °C. By contrast, there was partial cross-linking at 21 °C and almost complete cross-linking at 37 °C. The slow migrating cross-linked product was not detected when the reducing agent dithiothreitol (DTT) was added after cross-linking. This indicates that the disulfide bond was cleaved by DTT. In mutant L531C/C1074, cross-linked product was detected at all three temperatures. Again, addition of DTT resulted in the disappearance of the cross-linked product and the appearance of the 170-kDa P-gp. The complete cross-linking results between the cysteines in the NBD1 terminal signature sequence (531LSGGQ535) and the cysteines in the NBD2 Walker A site (1070GSSGCGKS1077) are shown in TableI. Residues G1073C and C1074 in the NBD2 Walker A site and L531C and S532C in the NBD1 signature sequence appear to be closest, since mutants L531C/G1073C, L531C/C1074, and S532C/G1073C were cross-linked when treated with oxidant at 4 °C. The cysteines in other mutants (e.g. L531C/S1072C, S532/S1072C, and G533C/G1073C) must be further apart, since cross-linked product was only observed at either 21 or 37 °C. In all cases, there was no evidence of intermolecular cross-linking, since a product with a molecular mass greater than that of the cross-linked P-gp was not detected (data not shown). Also, no cross-linked product was observed in P-gp containing one cysteine (data not shown).Table ICross-linking between residues in the NBD1 signature sequence and in the NBD2 Walker A siteL531C (21%)aActivity of the single cysteine mutant relative to Cys-less P-gp.S532C (38%)G533C (91%)G534C (4%)Q535C (0%)4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °CG1070C (0%)−bNo cross-linked product detected in SDS-PAGE.−−−−−−−−−−−−−−S1071C (85%)−−*cRelatively weak cross-linking (<50% of P-gp cross-linked).−−−−−−−−+−−+S1072C (23%)−+cRelatively weak cross-linking (<50% of P-gp cross-linked).++dRelatively strong cross-linking (>50% of P-gp cross-linked).−++++−−+−−+−−−G1073C (4%)++++++++++−+++−−−−−−C1074 (103%)****** dRelatively strong cross-linking (>50% of P-gp cross-linked).eAsterisk sign in bold indicates cross-linking inhibited when preincubated with ATP plus vanadate.−**−−*−−−−−−G1075C (0%)−−++−−+−−−−−−−−−K1076C (12%)−−*−−−−−−−−−−−−S1077C (0%)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−a Activity of the single cysteine mutant relative to Cys-less P-gp.b No cross-linked product detected in SDS-PAGE.c Relatively weak cross-linking (<50% of P-gp cross-linked).d Relatively strong cross-linking (>50% of P-gp cross-linked).e Asterisk sign in bold indicates cross-linking inhibited when preincubated with ATP plus vanadate. Open table in a new tab Structural changes that occur in P-gp immediately after ATP hydrolysis can be studied by vanadate trapping of the molecule in a transition state (21Urbatsch I.L. Sankaran B. Weber J. Senior A.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 19383-19390Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (365) Google Scholar). Vanadate traps ADP at one of the two NBDs by occupying the position of the γ-phosphate adjacent to ADP. Vanadate trapping at one site inhibits ATP hydrolysis at the second site. Accordingly, we examined the effect of vanadate trapping on cross-linking of all the mutants. Representative cross-linking results of two (NBD1 signature/NBD2 Walker A) mutants (L531C/G1073C and L531C/C1074) are shown in Fig. 2. For both mutants, cross-linking was done at 21 °C, after preincubation of the membranes with ATP plus vanadate for 10 min at 37 °C (22Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 31800-31805Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar). Similar results were obtained when cross-linking was done at 4 or 37 °C after vanadate trapping (Table I). Cross-linking of mutant L531C/C1074 was almost completely inhibited by vanadate trapping of nucleotide. Similar results were observed in mutants L531C/S1071C, S532C/C1074, G533C/C1074C, and L531C/K1076C (Table I). Mutants L531C/C1074, L531C/S1071C, S532C/C1074, G533C/C1074, and L531C/K1076C had verapamil-stimulated ATPase activities of 22, 22, 30, 90, and 11% respectively, relative to Cys-less P-gp. The other mutants (Table I) such as L531C/G1073C (Fig. 2) showed no detectable inhibition of cross-linking when preincubated with ATP plus vanadate. A prerequisite step in vanadate trapping is hydrolysis of ATP, and an inactive mutant would not be expected to show evidence of vanadate trapping. This appears to be the case for mutants such as L531C/G1073C that showed no inhibition of cross-linking after treatment with ATP plus vanadate. All of these mutants had little or no ATPase activity (<5%). We then performed cross-linking analysis between cysteines in the NBD2-signature sequence (1176LSGGQ1180) and cysteines in the NBD1 Walker A site (427GNSGCGKS434). Cross-linking involving residues G427C, N428C, and S434C was not done because the single cysteine mutants, G427C and S434C, showed little or no activity (<5%), while N428C was defectively processed and rapidly degraded. The cross-linking results from the other 25 double cysteine mutants are shown in Table II. One mutant, L1176C/C431, was cross-linked at 4, 21, and 37 °C. Mutants L1176C/S429C and L1176C/G432C were cross-linked only at 21 and 37 °C, while cross-linking of mutants L1176C/G430C, S1177C/S429C, S1177C/G430C, S1177C/C431, S1177C/G432C, and G1179C/S429C was only observed at 37 °C.Table IICross-linking between residues in the NBD2 signature sequence and in the NBD1 Walker A siteL1176C (53%)aActivity of the single cysteine mutant relative to Cys-less P-gp.S1177C (35%)G1178C (78%)G1179C (14%)Q1180C (23%)4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °C4 °C21 °C37 °CS429C (38%)−bNo cross-linked product detected in SDS-PAGE.*cRelatively weak cross-linking (<50% of P-gp cross-linked).**−−*−−−−−+−−−G430C (12%)−−++dRelatively strong cross-linking (>50% of P-gp cross-linked).−−+−−−−−−−−−C431 (100%)*****dRelatively strong cross-linking (>50% of P-gp cross-linked).eAsterisk sign in bold indicates cross-linking inhibited when preincubated with ATP plus vanadate.−−*−−−−−−−−−G432C (0%)−+cRelatively weak cross-linking (<50% of P-gp cross-linked).++−−+−−−−−−−−−K433C (12%)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−a Activity of the single cysteine mutant relative to Cys-less P-gp.b No cross-linked product detected in SDS-PAGE.c Relatively weak cross-linking (<50% of P-gp cross-linked).d Relatively strong cross-linking (>50% of P-gp cross-linked).e Asterisk sign in bold indicates cross-linking inhibited when preincubated with ATP plus vanadate. Open table in a new tab Inhibition of cross-linking by vanadate trapping was tested with all the mutants. Cross-linking of four mutants, L1176C/S429C, S1177C/S429C, L1176C/C431, and S1177C/C431, was inhibited by preincubation with ATP plus vanadate (Table II). A representative blot of mutant L1176C/C431 is shown in Fig. 2. No inhibition of cross-linking by vanadate trapping was observed in mutants such as L1176C/G430C, L1176C/G432C, S1177C/G430C, or S1177C/G432C. Inhibition of cross-linking by vanadate plus ATP again correlated with the ATPase activity of the mutants. All of the mutants that had cross-linking inhibited by vanadate trapping had verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity (>23% of Cys-less P-gp), while those that did not show inhibition had little or no verapamil-stimulated ATPase activity (<5%). Is the cross-linking method specific? To address this question we also constructed 120 other double cysteine mutants. Each mutant had a cysteine in the NBD1-signature sequence and another in a segment of the second cytoplasmic loop (residues Asn280 to Ile289) connecting TMs 4 and 5, in the NBD2-signature sequence, in the conserved Q-loop (residues 1114Q to1121I) in NBD2, or in the D-loop (residues (Ser1204 to Ser1211). The d- and Q-loops are highly conserved regions in ABC proteins (23Schneider E. Hunke S. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 1998; 22: 1-20Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). When these mutant P-gps were expressed in HEK 293 cell and subjected to oxidative cross-linking with copper phenanthroline at 37 °C, there was no cross-linked product detected in SDS-PAGE (data not shown). These results indicate that cross-linking between residues in the signature sequences and in the Walker A sites was specific. The cross-linking results indicate that the signature sequence in each NBD is very close to the Walker A site in the opposing NBD. To confirm that this structural arrangement is present in the active molecule, we tested the effect of cross-linking on drug (verapamil)-stimulated ATPase activity. Two mutants, L531C/C1074 and L1176C/C431, were selected for analysis; because these residues are found at identical positions when the two halves of P-gp are aligned, both mutants can be cross-linked with oxidant at 4 °C and both retained ATPase activity (22 and 41%, respectively, relative to Cys-less P-gp). Fig. 3 shows that the activities of mutants L531C/C1074 and L1176C/C431 after treatment with oxidant were inhibited 82 and 72%, respectively. The activities of both mutants were almost completely recovered after treatment with DTT. These results are consistent with the idea that disulfide bond formation is occurring in functional molecules and that cross-linking between the signature sequence in each NBD with the opposing Walker A site inhibits activity. This study shows that the NBD1 Walker A site is close to the NBD2 signature sequence, while the NBD2 Walker A site is close to the NBD1 signature sequence. The residues closest to each other are Cys431(NBD1)/Cys1176(NBD2) at one ATP-binding site and Cys531(NBD1), Cys532(NBD1)/Cys1073(NBD2), and Cys1074(NBD2) at the other ATP-binding site, since they were cross-linked at 4 °C, a temperature at which molecular motion would be expected to be low (Fig. 4). This implies that the residues in the Walker A site and in the signature sequences must be about 5–8 Å apart, as this is the distance between the Cα bonds of a disulfide bond (24Richardson J.S. Adv. Protein Chem. 1981; 34: 167-339Crossref PubMed Scopus (3063) Google Scholar). The close association between NBD1 and NBD2 is consistent with the observation that these domains will associate with each other when expressed as separate polypeptides (25Loo T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 21839-21844Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar). Cross-linking of cysteine residues in the signature and Walker A sites of the active mutants was blocked by vanadate trapping of nucleotide. Hydrolysis of ATP was essential, since inhibition of cross-linking was not observed in the presence of the non-hydrolyzable ATP analog AMP.PNP (data not shown) or in the inactive mutants (e.g. mutant L531C/G1073C; Fig. 2). Vanadate trapping of nucleotide by P-gp only occurs at one site (either NBD1 or NBD2) at a time and in a random manner (26Urbatsch I.L. Sankaran B. Bhagat S. Senior A.E. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 26956-26961Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar, 27Hrycyna C.A. Ramachandra M. Ambudkar S.V., Ko, Y.H. Pedersen P.L. Pastan I. Gottesman M.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 16631-16634Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (122) Google Scholar). Our study also supports the notion that there is movement of the signature and Walker A sites during the transition state (28Urbatsch I.L. Gimi K. Wilke-Mounts S. Senior A.E. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 25031-25038Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar). There is no detailed structural information about eukaryotic ABC transporters. The of ABC transporters, however, have Our for the NBDs of P-gp are different from that from the of the NBDs of K. 1998; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar), the transporter K. J. J. EMBO J. 2000; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar), or the transporter 2001; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar). In the and proteins, the signature sequences and the Walker A sites were on of the while in the two NBDs were more than 50 Å The of three other proteins the from P-gp. In the A. Cell. 2000; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar), transporter D.C. 2002; PubMed Scopus Google Scholar), and the inactive NBD from N. J.E. J. Cell. 2002; Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus Google Scholar), the signature sequences were to be close to the Walker A sites and to ATP A study of the NBDs also between the signature sequences and the Walker A site Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: PubMed Scopus (118) Google Scholar). They of the signature sequence. Therefore, the NBDs of and eukaryotic ABC transporter may have structural changes occur in the NBDs and in the domains T.W. Clarke D.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 3511-3516Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar, T.W. Clarke D.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 31800-31805Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar) of P-gp immediately after ATP hydrolysis. will be required to determine conformational changes in the NBDs are to the domains.

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