A long shadow: Frederick P. Keppel, the Carnegie Corporation and the Dominions and Colonies Fund Area Experts 1923–1943

Abstract The Carnegie Corporation found its first great manager in Frederick Paul Keppel (1875–1943). Keppel's career is important to historians of education because interwar Carnegie initiatives, articulated through the Corporation's Dominions and Colonies Fund and Teachers College, Columbia University, internationalised American educational theories and practices throughout the English‐speaking world. Keppel's concept of key men, prominent authorities influencing events in their home countries, was central to these endeavours. Both products and advocates of modernism, key men put their confidence in the natural and social sciences, in turn melded into the grand themes of their times; the British Imperial Mission, American Expansionism, and shared Anglo‐Saxon racial identity. The preparatory nature of Keppel's life and work experiences are first explored. The article then surveys how the complex, yet remarkably informal, network of overseas key men were established. An examination of the Carnegie legacy offers some conclusions. Keywords: CarnegieTC ColumbiaKeppeldominionsSouth Africa Notes 1Ellen Condliffe Lagemann,, The Politics of Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 100–3; E. Jefferson Murphy, Creative Philanthropy, Carnegie Corporation and Africa 1953–1976 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1976). 2Gary McCulloch and Roy Lowe, 'Introduction; Centre and periphery – networks and space in the history of education', History of Education 32, no.5 (2003): 457–9. 3Frederick P. Keppel, Philanthropy and Learning (New York: Teachers College Press, 1936), 139–54. 4Richard Glotzer, Family Life and Child Rearing Practices among Carnegie Corporations Area Experts 1920–1945. Manuscript in revision. 5For the Keppels' emigration see David Keppel, FPK: An Intimate Biography of Frederick Paul Keppel (Washington, DC: Private Printer, 1950), 3–12. For views on Keppel's career see Charles Dollard, Appreciations of Frederick Paul Keppel (New York: Columbia University Press, 1951). 6James E. Russell, Founding Teachers College (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia, 1937), 3–12. 7Grace Dodge's great‐grandfather, David Low Dodge (1774–1852), helped establish the New York Peace Society, the New York Bible Society, and the New York Tract Society. His son, William Earl Dodge (1805–1883) married the daughter of Anson Phelps, a prominent New York merchant. William E. Dodge headed Phelps, Dodge and Company and was a director of the Erie Railroad, among his many financial interests. He too was a prominent religious and peace activist. 8Russell, Founding Teachers College, 23–72. 9Philip J. Pauly, 'The Development of High School Biology: New York City, 1900–1925', Isis 82, no. 4 (1991): 662–88. 10Keppel, FPK, 13–42. 11Keppel had known the Morgans since childhood. J.P. Morgan's passing of the collection plate was one of the rituals of their Stuyvesant Square church. 12The English practice of naming manor houses and estates served to identify ancestry, family titles and geographic location. An act of Parliament (1765) introduced street numbering. Naming persisted and migrated across the British Empire. In North America house naming was a popular middle‐class practice in the 1920s, along with the adaption of Tudor architecture. Even apartment buildings were named. Cf. 'House names hard to Find: Almost very Combination used in New York', Washington Post, August 28, 1904. 13Geraldine M. Joncich, The Sane Positivist; A biography of Edward L. Thorndike (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1989), 202–3, Harry L. Hollingworth, Letta Stetter Hollingworth: A Biography (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1943), 182–5. 14Keppel, FPK, 75, 104, Dollard, Appreciations, 95–109. 15This group consists of Frederick Bagster‐Collins, Robert S. Woodworth, Frederick Woodbridge, Edward Reisner, Austin Evans, Albert Poffenger and F.P. Keppel. Thorndike's prolific output is excluded since his remarkable output (10 books) between 1910 and 1917 skews the data. 16Thorndike moved back to New York City in 1917 settling in a campus apartment. Claiming to suffer from asthma, Geraldine Joncich, his biographer, suggests that guilt over his preference for work against the wishes of his wife and five children may also have created somatic stress. Thorndike worked past his retirement, until he could literally work no more. He published nearly 80 books and an estimated 500 publications of various types. 17The chaotic functioning of the Federal Government in 1917–1918, relying as it did on antiquated practices and planning models, led to rapid adaptation (and legitimising) of new business models often introduced by temporary outsiders. Mobilisation, procurement and chain of command were managed by entrenched civil service and military bureaucracies originating in the Spanish American War (1898–1899). In one of the coldest winters in memory (1917), coal trains, along with military supplies headed for sea ports, were lined up on sidings across the East Coast, as logistical inefficiency made deliveries impossible. 18Keppel helped write treatment standards for COs, housed en masse at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Keppel also sought (unsuccessfully) to persuade the National Civil Liberties Bureau's Roger Nash Baldwin to desist from anti‐war activities and avoid prison. During the war Keppel and Company employed Carl Zigrosser, an active member of the American Union Against Militarism and the No Conscription Alliance. Later a prominent art historian and museum curator, he had been hired on F.P. Keppel's recommendation. Robert C. Cotrell, Roger Nash Baldwin and the American Civil Liberties Union (New York: Columbia University Press. 2000); Carl Zigrosser, My Own Shall Come to Me: A Personal Memoir (Haarlem: Joh. Enschedé en Zonon, 1971), 30–7, 56–63. 19Edgar A. Shuler, 'The Houston Race Riot, 1917', Journal of Negro Education 29, no. 3 (1944): 300–38. 20David M.Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 144–90. 21Emmitt J. Scott, The American Negro in the World War (Washington, DC: private publisher, 1919), Dewey H. Palmer, 'Moving North: Migration of Negroes during World War I', Phylon 28, no. 1 (1967): 52–62. 22Ralph Hayes, 'Third Secretary of War': 17–37, in Dollard, Appreciations. 23Frederick P. Keppel, Columbia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1914), 179–80, Robert A. McCaughey, Stand Columbia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 256–76, 241–91, and Harold Wechsler, The Qualified Student (New York: Wiley, 1977). 24The War Department provided Keppel with numerous contacts with the Red Cross and Russell Sage Foundation. Keppel's J.P. Morgan relations were surely helpful with the International Chamber of Commerce. Fluent in French, he was no stranger to Paris. Frederick Sr. maintained a Paris apartment for Keppel and Company business trips. 25In his article, The Gospel of Wealth (1889), Andrew Carnegie first outlined the obligation of the wealthy to redistribute their fortunes for the betterment of society. His first philanthropy, the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh (1896), focused on improving local cultural and educational institutions. The Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland (1901) sought to fund improvements and university expansion. The Carnegie Institution of Washington (1902) focused on scientific research, and was followed by the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust (1903) aimed at Dunfermline's educational institutions. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching was founded in 1905, which in turn established the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association, securing pensions for teachers in higher education. The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace came in 1910, followed by Carnegie Corporation in 1911, and finally the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust (1913), founded for charitable causes. 26Carnegie Corporation initially relied on short‐term presidential appointees drawn from the trustees; Elihu Root (1919–1920), James R. Angell (1920–1921), and Henry S. Pritchett (1921–1923). Each had prior War Department or Service branch administrative experience, allowing them to extend already influential networks of contacts into government and industry. All were idealists with foundation experience who applied their skills in university settings at one time or another. Keppel's profile mirrored that of prior incumbents. For a comparison with Carnegie's Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching see Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, Private Power for the Public Good (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1983), 38–44. 27Barbara Howe, 'The Emergence of Scientific Philanthropy, 1900–1920: Origins, Issues, and Outcomes', in Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism, ed. Robert F. Arnove (Boston, 1980), 25–54. 28In the 1930s criticisms became more strident as income disparities widened and large segments of the population were economically devastated by continuing depression. 29The spirit, if not the presence, of the values and prejudices of the old elite permeated the inner sanctums where decision making and social acceptance were most crucial. The preoccupation of the new captains of industry with bridging the gulf between old money and new money is well documented. Cf. Thorsten Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York, Macmillan and Company, 1912). Also see David Grusky, ed., Social Stratification: Class Race and Gender in Sociological Perspective (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 260–5. 30R. Jeffry Lustig, Corporate Liberalism: The Origins of Modern American Political Theory 1890–1920 (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1982), 195–226. 31Russell Marks, 'Legitimating Industrial Capitalism: Philanthropy and Individual Differences', in Philanthropy and Imperialism, ed. Robert F. Arnove (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1982), 87–122. 32Marks, ibid.; also see David F. Labaree, 'The Ed School's Romance with Progressivism', Brookings [Institution] Papers on Educational Policy 2004: 89–112. 33 The Politics of Knowledge, 3–11. 34Both working‐ and middle‐class constituencies were awakening to the importance of education and skill‐specific knowledge. The Chautauqua Movement, which developed from the training of Sunday school teachers in the 1870s on the shores of Lake Chautauqua in Western New York State, grew into a network of public forums for the discussion of books, ideas and to hear notable speakers. A coalition of trade unions developed the Workers Education Bureau in 1921, which grew into the American Federation of Labor's Education Department in 1951. Many ethnically based mutual aid societies and social organisations also offered and encouraged education for their members. 35The Carnegie Library Program is symbolic of efforts to aid this meritocratic mobility by diffusing knowledge both as a general commodity and as a basis for popular assent to values and governance. The Politics of Knowledge, ibid. 36Two senior colleges of the City University, City College (1847) and Hunter College (1870), were joined by the School of Business (1919), renamed Baruch College (1953), Brooklyn College (1930) and Queens College (1937). 37Richard Glotzer, 'The influence of Carnegie Corporation and Teachers College, Columbia in the interwar dominions: The case for decentralized education', Historical Studies in Education 1, no. 1–2 (2000): 93–111. 38Ronald K.Goodenow and Robert Cowen, 'The American school of education and the Third World in the twentieth century: Teachers College and Africa, 1920–1950'. History of Education 15, no. 4. (1986): 271–89. 39Isaac Kandel, The training of Elementary School Teachers In Germany (Doctoral Diss., Teachers College, Columbia University, 1910). 43The reference is to a joint conference of the American Association of Universities (AAU) and the British Inter‐University Council (BIC) in Toronto, Canada (1953). An impromptu hotel lobby meeting led Carnegie Corporation to commit support to AAU's establishment of a liaison committee for involvement in African universities. Cornelius Willem De Kiewiet, Transcribed interviews, Interview 2: 54, September 28, 1967, Oral History Research Project, Carnegie Corporation Archives, Butler Library, Columbia University, New York, NY (hereafter CC). 40James Earl Russell, The Extension of University Teaching in England and the United States: A Study in Practical Pedagogics (Leipzig, 1895); German High Schools: The History, Organization and Methods of Secondary Education in Germany (New York, Longmans Green: 1913). 41Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge, 100–3. 42Favoured grant applicants were sometimes advised to revise proposals to meet trustee and reader objections. Michael White, 'Carnegie Philanthropy in Australia in the Nineteen Thirties: a Reassessment', History of Educational Review 26, no. 1 (1997): 1–24. 44As Dean, Russell recruited educators active in educational reform or experimentation. Offered the opportunity to work on advanced degrees at TC, the best were offered faculty positions. Most often self‐made Protestant Midwesterners with experiences as teachers in one‐room schools, these recruits offered an affinity and compassion for ordinary people and a work ethic encompassing social and intellectual self‐betterment, in addition to their intellectual and academic talents. Lawrence A. Cremin, A History of Teachers College, Columbia University (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954). 45Cf. Robert J. Selleck, English Primary Education and the Progressives, 1914–1939 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul: 1972). 46Kevin Brehony, 'A new education for a new era: the contribution of the conference of the New Education Fellowship to the disciplinary field of education 1921–1938', Paedagogica Historica 40, nos 5–6 (2004): 733–55. 47Fiscal austerity reinforced the notion that British training, methods and educational institutions were unassailable. In the overseas empire the latest in books, the arts and ideas overwhelmingly emanated from Britain through a monopoly on the import of print material unchallenged until the end of the Second World War. 48Clive Whitehead, 'Educational Policy in British Tropical Africa: The 1925 White Paper in Retrospect', History of Education 10, no. 3 (1981): 195–203; Isabela Madeira, 'Portuguese, French and British discourses on colonial education: Church–state relations, school expansion and missionary competition in Africa 1890–1930', Paedagogica Historica 41, no. 1–2, (2005): 31–60; William B. Cohen, 'The Colonized as Child: British and French Colonial Rule', Africana Historical Studies 3, no. 2, (1970): 427–31. 49There were three generations of Anselm Phelps‐Stokes (1838–1913, 1874–1958, 1905–1986) starting with multimillionaire banker and merchant Anselm‐Phelps Stokes I. Related to the Dodge family through marriage, Keppel's friend Anselm Phelps‐Stokes II was close to Grace Dodge, chief benefactress of Teachers College. His great grandfather Thomas Stokes, a London merchant, had been a founder of the London Missionary Society. The second and third generations were ordained ministers, graduates of Yale, and Trustees of the Phelps‐Stokes Fund. Also see note 6. 50Richard Hull, 'The Phelps‐Stokes Fund, African Education, and Agricultural Underdevelopment in southern Africa 1903–1935', Africana Journal 16 (1994): 84–101. 51Jones's two‐volume study, Negro Education (1917), assessed the impact of Northern philanthropy on Southern Negro education. He argued against redundancy, wasted resources, weak and poorly administered institutions, and named those worthy of closure. Jones also continued typological ideas of race in Negro Education, nurtured and systematised in his doctoral work under Sociologist Franklin Giddings (1855–1931). Unregulated emotion, faulty moral development and need for control also appear as themes in his earlier work on the Hampton Institute Social Studies Curriculum. Eric Anderson and Alfred A. Moss, Dangerous Donations (Columbia: University of Missouri Press: 1999), 191–218, W.H. Watkins et al., 'Race and Education', in William H. Watkins, The White Architects of Black Education (New York, Columbia University Press, 2001), 44–50; H.M. Kliebard, 'The Evil Genius of the Negro Race: Thomas Jesse Jones and Educational Reform', in Changing Course: American Curriculum Reform in the 20th Century (New York: Teachers College Press, 2002). 52Richard D. Heyman, 'C.T. Loram: A South African Liberal in Race Relations', International Journal of African Historical Studies 5, no. 1 (1972): 41–50. 53Raised in Corstorphine, Scotland, Bertram had gone out to South Africa in 1890 at 18. His Scottish railway experience brought him into the Natal Government Railway, where he rose to station master. In 1896 he became Mine Secretary for Van Ryn Gold Mines Estate He an of and was in the Bertram to Scotland in the of to a the he his service as Carnegie's and Secretary and of the Corporation In time Carnegie Robert his to an for Bertram had to nearly in in he also as a to over one a in James An (New York: Carnegie 1936), James Bertram with Andrew Carnegie James Bertram Carnegie Archives, Carnegie University Bertram to Anselm 75, Charles Library, New most of in South African (New York: private James Earl Russell Archives, Library, Teachers College, A of African also found in the Oxford Glotzer, 'The of The Study of Race and Development in the United and South International Journal of African Historical Studies 29, no. 2, and and the and Missionary Historical Studies in Education no. 1 (2005): is the of the five a of his Education Research and no. 1 and the Politics of Education in South Africa History of Education no. 4 Glotzer, South Africa and Canada Carnegie Corporation Philanthropy and the from to Education Research and no. 1 had College, the University of and to New York in During the Second World War was a in military activities of the also and on South Cf. A Study one‐room school at 16 and a school at was recruited for by Russell from A on school by the the is as public education during the depression. a Carnegie in South Glotzer, 'The influence of Carnegie Corporation and Teachers College, Columbia, in the P. Keppel and James of the and the Secretary as to an Educational Program in Africa (New York: Carnegie Corporation to August Bertram to August 28, Bertram his from White had a and from a where were by of and brought cultural and competition with the and them also racial to British of of African and to social were to Keppel, cultural with his of Industrial to – Africana Library, University of H. (New York: Oxford University 1989), the by the Dominions and Colonies Fund in Africa between 1925 and to South of the found in his a as the for education Journal of Southern African Studies no. 3 The Carnegie into White in South Africa A to Phelps‐Stokes II the of a prominent Yale, and as an in and in Secretary of since his as of the Phelps‐Stokes Fund and influence led to for to an at had to for at a his Educational for his five children came through and of of a in New York, as he to school at He was to 'The Charles to 3, 75, to Keppel, of Carnegie Corporation Archives, Butler Library, Columbia University, New York (hereafter CC). For an of the Library Program as well as Carnegie in Australia see White, 'Carnegie Philanthropy in to Keppel. Relations', in New and the the First World ed. William S. and Roger University of out J.P. Morgan in as a financial house that for into the war as a of securing his J.P. Morgan Keppel did not an of C. (New York: Press, to F. Keppel, August C. University Press, Carnegie Trustees of the 1930s Russell a prominent New York and friend of Frederick and David Keppel from A in the J.P. Morgan he was Secretary of the his old from the War Department also joined the as did Henry of the University of Washington and friend of both Butler on the and James E. Robert A. a legacy of Andrew on the as did James Bertram until his in Carnegie and the family interests. reference is to for a by to the a and and who an the of his as its first meeting introduced to Keppel, 104, Also see The (London: came to North America between and to in in the that many from this in the of New York in family as the in of from and the in Scottish to his acceptance of a to because of the Educational in a Changing Society and Company, S. Education for Council for Educational Modern in Education and De Kiewiet, Transcribed no. 2: 54, September 28, 1967, Oral History Research Project, Glotzer, South Africa and Canada the East and David East Robert the South and his intellectual and In North America James Henry Henry Morgan and the popular in a the end of the and to The could reinforced by the of Paul S. and D. and in Colonial and Colonial Africa University of California Press, in South African Department of University of Edward S. and The North American University Press, with and adaptation of his sought to the of in with and he on to the of and in The from the – to – first in into and its Development its to and social of and with the American an of in the World War United and was a member of New Society. The of the Race (New York: C. and Company for over his preference for a of an his was over The that the were and from the he was was a in his S. The of Isis (1972): the of to and at the University of London and their work to based on the of and and his a of was His views and nature led to with often by his of Charles relations with The Scientific Life in a University Press, An to the Theory of and Social (New York: Press, to in England and North America became an important of Carnegie for many Charles at the University of London was one his at the University of A career his were he was for the War. in in he was to of of and In his became of a was He is with to and impact of in in the Robert to the and of South A Columbia University research, Social was by the Foundation. and The and of an University Press,

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