The Haitian Revolution, History's New Frontier: State of the Scholarship and Archival Sources

Abstract Focusing on the era of the Haitian Revolution, this article analyses recent historiographical developments in both French and English. Though the field has made great strides in recent decades, it occasionally remains hampered by insufficient archival research, a parochial approach by US and French scholars, and linguistic fragmentation. The article also includes a survey of the main archival resources that are available to scholars in Europe, the Caribbean, and the USA. Notes Francis Alexander Stanislaus Wimpffen, A Voyage to Saint Domingo in the Years 1788, 1789, and 1790 (London: T. Cadell, 1797), 43, 206, 223, 335. Michel Rolph-Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1995). On the historiography on the Haitian Revolution, see also John D. Garrigus, Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue (New York: Palgrave, 2006), 9–16. For standard political and military histories in French, see Pamphile de Lacroix, La révolution de Haïti (1819; reprint, Paris: Karthala, 1995); Thomas Madiou, Histoire d'Haïti, 3 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Courtois, 1847); Beaubrun Ardouin, Etudes sur l'histoire d'Haïti, suivies de la vie du général J-M Borgella, 11 vols. (Paris: Dezobry et Magdeleine, 1853–1860); Auguste Nemours, Histoire militaire de la guerre d'indépendance de Saint-Domingue, 2 vols. (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1925–1928). On naval aspects, see Rémi Monaque, ‘Les aspects maritimes de l'expédition de Saint-Domingue’, Revue Napoléon no. 9 (February 2002): 5–13; Philippe Girard, ‘The Ugly Duckling: The French Navy and the Saint-Domingue expedition, 1801–1803’, International Journal of Naval History 7, no. 3 (2008), http://www.ijnhonline.org/2010/12/01/the-ugly-duckling-the-french-navy-and-the-saint-domingue-expedition1801-1803/. Cyril Lionel Robert James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L'Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (1938; reprint, New York: Vintage Books, 1989). Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004). On citizenship, see Laurent Dubois, ‘“Citoyens et Amis!” Esclavage, citoyenneté et République dans les Antilles françaises à l’époque révolutionnaire’, Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales 58, no. 2 (March–April 2003): 281–304; Laurent Dubois, A Colony of Citizens: Revolution and Slave Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1787–1804 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). For other English-language histories of the Revolution, see Lothrop Stoddard, The French Revolution in San Domingo (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1914); Thomas Ott, The Haitian Revolution, 1789–1804 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1973). For early critical works, see Antoine Dalmas, Histoire de la révolution de Saint-Domingue, 2 vols. (Paris: Mame frères, 1814); Jonathan Brown, History and Present Condition of St. Domingo, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, PA: William Marshall, 1837); R. Lepelletier de Saint-Rémy, Saint-Domingue: étude et solution nouvelle de la question haïtienne (Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1846); H. Castonnet des Fosses, La perte d'une colonie: la révolution de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Faivre, 1893). For early celebratory works, see Marcus Rainsford, An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti (London: Albion Press, 1805); Antoine Métral, Histoire de l'insurrection des esclaves dans le nord de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Delaunay, 1818). For recent celebratory works, see Denis Laurent-Ropa, Haïti: Une colonie française, 1625–1802 (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1993); Pat Chin et al., eds., Haiti, A Slave Revolution: 200 Years after 1804 (New York: International Action Center, 2004); Wiener Kerns Fleurimond, Haïti, 1804–2004: le bicentenaire d'une révolution oubliée (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2005). For early works critical of Louverture, see Louis Dubroca, La vie de Toussaint Louverture, chef des noirs insurgés de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Dubroca, 1802); Cousin d'Avallon, Histoire de Toussaint Louverture, chef des noirs insurgés de cette colonie (Paris: Pillot, 1802). For early works celebrating Louverture, see Joseph Saint-Rémy, Vie de Toussaint Louverture (Paris: Moquet, 1850); Alphonse de Lamartine, Toussaint Louverture (Paris: Levy, 1850); John Relly Beard, The Life of Toussaint L'Ouverture: The Negro Patriot of Hayiti (London: Ingram, Cooke and Co., 1853); Thomas Gragnon-Lacoste, Toussaint Louverture (Paris: Durand, 1877); Victor Schoelcher, Vie de Toussaint Louverture (Paris: Ollendorf, 1889); H. Pauléus Sannon, Histoire de Toussaint Louverture, 3 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Héraux, 1920–1933); Alfred Nemours, Histoire de la captivité et de la mort de Toussaint Louverture: Notre pélerinage au fort de Joux (Paris: Berger Levrault, 1929). For recent celebratory works, see Ralph Korngold, Citizen Toussaint (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1945); Stephen Alexis, Black Liberator: The Life of Toussaint Louverture (New York: Macmillan, 1949); Faine Scharon, Toussaint Louverture et la révolution de Saint-Domingue, 2 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l'Etat, 1957); Roger Dorsinville, Toussaint Louverture ou la vocation de la liberté (Paris: Julliard, 1965); Wenda Parkinson, ‘This Gilded African:’ Toussaint L'Ouverture (London: Quartet Books, 1978); Aimé Césaire, Toussaint Louverture: La révolution française et le problème colonial (Paris: Présence Africaine, 1981); Alain Foix, Toussaint Louverture (Paris: Gallimard, 2007). Gabriel Debien, Jean Fouchard, and Marie-Antoinette Menier, ‘Toussaint Louverture avant 1789. Légendes et réalités’, Conjonction no. 134 (1977): 65–80; Debien and Pierre Pluchon, ‘Un plan d'invasion de la Jamaïque en 1799 et la politique anglo-américaine de Toussaint-Louverture’, Revue de la Societé haïtienne d'histoire, de géographie et de géologie 36, no. 119 (1978): 3–72; David Geggus, ‘The ‘Volte-Face’ of Toussaint Louverture’, in Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Blacks in the Diaspora), ed. David Geggus (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 119–136 and Jacques de Cauna, ed., Toussaint Louverture et l'indépendance d'Haïti (Paris: Karthala, 2004). For Pierre Pluchon's works, see Pluchon, Toussaint Louverture, de l'esclavage au pouvoir (Paris: L’école, 1979); Pluchon, Toussaint Louverture, fils noir de la révolution française (Paris: Ecole des loisirs, 1980); Pluchon, Toussaint Louverture (Paris: Fayard, 1989). For Geggus' works, see David Geggus, ‘Toussaint Louverture and the Slaves of the Breda Plantation’, Journal of Caribbean History 20, no. 1 (1985–1986): 30–48; David Geggus, ‘Les débuts de Toussaint Louverture’, Généalogie et histoire de la Caraïbe no. 170 (May 2004): 4172–3; David Geggus, ‘Toussaint Louverture avant et après l'insurrection de 1791’, in Mémoire de révolution d'esclaves à Saint-Domingue, ed. Franklin Midy (Montréal: CIDIHCA, 2006), 113–29; Geggus, ‘Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution’, in Profiles of Revolutionaries in Atlantic History, ed. R. William Weisberger (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 115–35. Jean-Louis Donnadieu, ‘La famille ‘oubliée’ de Toussaint Louverture’, Bulletin de la Société Archéologique et Historique du Gers no. 401 (Third trimester 2011): 357–65. Madison Smartt Bell, Toussaint Louverture: A Biography (New York: Pantheon Books, 2007). On Louverture, see also Philippe Girard, Toussaint Louverture and the Dilemma of Emancipation: A Biography (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2013). On Dessalines as a slave of Louverture's son-in-law, see Girard, ‘Jean-Jacques Dessalines and the Atlantic System: A Reappraisal’, William and Mary Quarterly 3d ser., 69, no. 3 (July 2012): 549–82 and Jacques de Cauna, ‘Dessalines esclave de Toussaint?’, Outremers no. 374–5 (First semester 2012): 319–22. On Dessalines, see also Timoléon Brutus, L'homme d'airain: étude monographique sur Jean-Jacques Dessalines, fondateur de la nation haïtienne, 2 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Théodore, 1946); Dantès Bellegarde, Dessalines a parlé (Port-au-Prince: Société d’éditions et de librairie, 1948); Gérard Mentor Laurent, Six études sur J. J. Dessalines (Port-au-Prince: Les Presses Libres, [1961?]); Hénock Trouillot, Dessalines ou la tragédie post-coloniale (Port-au-Prince: Panorama, 1966); Martin Renauld, Jean-Jacques Dessalines dans la guerre d'indépendance haïtienne: les stratégies utilisées pour imposer son leadership (Montréal: Université de Montréal, 2004); Gérard Desnoyers Montès, Dessalines face à l'armée de Napoléon Bonaparte (Montréal: SORHICA, 2006); Berthony Dupont, Jean-Jacques Dessalines: itinéraire d'un révolutionnaire (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2006). On other revolutionary figures, see Bellegarde, ‘President Alexandre Pétion’, Phylon 2, no. 3 (Fall 1941): 205–13; John Edward Baur, ‘Mulatto Machiavelli: Jean Pierre Boyer and the Haiti of his Day’, Journal of Negro History 32, no. 3 (July 1947): 307–53; Hubert Cole, Christophe, King of Haiti (New York: Viking Press, 1967). Trouillot, Silencing the Past, 105. On the Haitian flag, see Luc Dorsinville, Jean-Jacques Dessalines et la création du drapeau bleu et rouge haïtien (Port-au-Prince: Les Presses libres, 1953); Hénock Trouillot, Le drapeau bleu et rouge: une mystification historique (Port-au-Prince: Théodore, 1958); Michel Aubourg, Le drapeau dessalinien: Contribution à l'histoire d'Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l'Etat, 1964); Claude and Marcel Auguste, Pour le drapeau: contribution à la recherche sur les couleurs haïtiennes (Québec: Namaan?), 1982; Odette Roy Fombrun, Le drapeau et les armes de la République d'Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Deschamps, 1987); Laurore Saint-Juste, Les couleurs du drapeau national (Port-au-Prince: L'imprimeur II, 1988); Girard, ‘Birth of a Nation: The Creation of the Haitian Flag and Haiti's French Revolutionary Heritage’, Journal of Haitian Studies 15, no. 1–2 (2009): 135–50. Vertus Saint-Louis, Système colonial et problèmes d'alimentation: Saint-Domingue au XVIIIème siècle (Montréal: CIDIHCA, 2003). On Bunel, see Girard, ‘Trading Races: Joseph and Marie Bunel, A Diplomat and a Merchant in Revolutionary Saint-Domingue and Philadelphia’, Journal of the Early Republic 30, no. 3 (Fall 2010): 351–76; Ronald Johnson, ‘A Revolutionary Dinner: U.S. Diplomacy toward Saint-Domingue, 1798–1801’, Early American Studies (January 2011). On Raimond, see John Garrigus, ‘Opportunist or Patriot?: Julien Raimond (1744–1801) and the Haitian Revolution’, Slavery and Abolition 28, no. 1 (2007): 1–21. On other figures, see David Geggus, ‘Slave, Soldier, Rebel: The Strange Career of Jean Kina’, in Haitian Revolutionary Studies (Blacks in the Diaspora), ed. David Geggus (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), 137–52; Robert Louis Stein, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax: The Lost Sentinel of the Republic (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1985); Henry Mézière, Le Général Leclerc et l'expédition de Saint-Domingue (Paris: Tallandier, 1990); Jacques Cauna, ‘Polverel ou la révolution tranquille’, in La révolution française et Haïti: Filiations, ruptures, nouvelles dimensions, ed. Michel Hector, vol. 1 (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1991), 384–99; Geggus, ‘The Caradeux and Colonial Memory’, in The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World, ed. Geggus (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001), 231–46; Christian Schneider, ‘Le colonel Vincent, officier du génie à Saint-Domingue’, Annales historiques de la révolution française no. 329 (July 2002): 101–22. Carolyn E. Fick, The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990). Trouillot, Silencing the Past, 40. Gérard Barthélémy, Créoles, bossales: conflit en Haïti (Petit Bourg, Guadeloupe: Ibis Rouge, 2000). On the racial divide in Haiti, see also David Nicholls, From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Michael Largey, Vodou Nation: Haitian Art Music and Cultural Nationalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006). Jean Price-Mars, Ainsi parla l'oncle, essais d'ethnographie (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de Compiègne, 1928). Jean Fouchard, The Haitian Maroons: Liberty or Death (1972; reprint, New York: Edward Blyden Press, 1981). Geggus, ‘Sex, Ratio, Age, and Ethnicity in the Atlantic Slave Trade: Data from French Shipping and Plantation Records’, Journal of African History 30, no. 1 (1989): 23–44; Geggus, ‘Slave and Free Colored Women in Saint-Domingue’, in More than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas, eds. David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 259–78; Geggus, ‘The French Slave Trade: An Overview’, William and Mary Quarterly 58, no. 1 (2001): 119–38. Joan Dayan, Haiti, History, and the Gods (1995; reprint, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). For other works, see Sibylle Fischer, Modernity Disavowed: Haiti and the Cultures of Slavery in the Age of Revolution (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004); David Scott, Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004); Doris Garraway, The Libertine Colony: Creolization in the Early French Caribbean (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005). For partly fictionalized works, see René Périn, L'incendie du Cap, ou, le règne de Toussaint Louverture (Paris: Marchands de nouveautés, 1802); Mary Hassal [Leonora Sansay], Secret History; or, The Horrors of St. Domingo, in a Series of Letters, Written by a Lady at Cape François (Philadelphia, PA: Bradford and Inskeep, 1808); Anatolii Vinogradov, The Black Consul (New York: Viking Press, 1935). Deborah Jenson, Beyond the Slave Narrative: Politics, Sex, and Manuscripts in the Haitian Revolution (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2011); Daniel Desormeaux, ‘The First of the Black Memorialists: Toussaint Louverture’, Yale French Studies no. 107 (2005): 131–45; Léon-François Hoffman, ‘Mythe et Idéologie: La Cérémonie du Bois-Caïman’, Études créoles 13, no. 1 (1990): 9–34; Susan Buck-Morss, Hegel, Haiti, and Universal History (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009). On free people of color, see Stewart King, Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-Revolutionary Saint-Domingue (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001); Garrigus, Before Haiti; Assumed Identities: The Meanings of Race in the Atlantic World, eds. Garrigus and Christopher Morris (Arlington, TX: University of Texas at Arlington, 2010). On free women of color, see Susan Socolow, ‘Economic Roles of the Free Women of Color of Cap Français’, in More than Chattel, eds. Gaspar and Hine, 279–97; Dominique Rogers, ‘Les libres de couleur dans les capitales de Saint-Domingue: fortune, mentalités et intégration à la fin de l'Ancien Régime (1776–1789)’ (PhD diss., Université Michel de Montaigne Bordeaux 3, 1999). On definitions of race in France, see Sue Peabody and Tyler Stovall, eds., The Color of Liberty: Histories of Race in France (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003); Pierre Boulle, Race et esclavage dans la France de l'Ancien Régime (Paris: Perrin, 2007). For works denying that Saint-Domingue was singularly promiscuous, see Garraway, Libertine Colony, 2; Myriam Cottias, ‘La séduction coloniale: damnation et stratégie’, in Séduction et sociétés: approches historiques, eds. Cécile Dauphin and Arlette Farge (Paris: Seuil, 2001), 125–40. On slave women as victims, see Garraway, Libertine Colony, 198. For sex as a means of empowerment, see Arlette Gautier, Les sœurs de Solitude: La condition féminine dans l'esclavage aux Antilles du XVIIe au XIXe siècle (Paris: Editions Caribéennes, 1985); Carolle Charles, ‘Sexual Politics and the Mediation of Class, Gender, and Race in Former Slave Plantation Societies: The Case of Haiti’, in Social Construction of the Past: Representation as Power, eds. George Clement Bond and Angela Gilliam (New York: Routledge, 1994), 44–58; Sue Peabody, ‘Négresse, Mulâtresse, Citoyenne: Gender and Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1650–1848’, in Gender and Slave Emancipation in the Atlantic World, eds. Pamela Scully and Diana Paton (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 56–78. On slave women's role in the Revolution, see Bernard Moitt, ‘Slave Women and Resistance in the French Caribbean’, in More than Chattel, eds. Gaspar and Hine, 239–58; Judith Kafka, ‘Action, Reaction, and Interaction: Slave Women in Resistance in the South of Saint Domingue, 1793–94’, Slavery and Abolition 18, no. 2 (1997): 48–72; Girard, ‘Rebelles with a Cause: Women in the Haitian Revolution’, Gender and History 21, no. 1 (2009): 60–85. For a more sobering look at male domination, see Mimi Sheller, ‘Sword-Bearing Citizens: Militarism and Manhood in Nineteenth-Century Haiti’, Plantation Society in the Americas 4, no. 2–3 (1997): 233–78. For early works on US–Haitian relations, see Charles Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1938); Ludwell Montague, Haiti and the United States, 1714–1938 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1940); Rayford W. Logan, Diplomatic Relations of the United States with Haiti, 1776–1891 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941); Alexander DeConde, The Quasi-War: The Politics and Diplomacy of the Undeclared War with France, 1797–1801 (New York: Scribner, 1966). For revisionist works, see Tim Matthewson, ‘Jefferson and Haiti’, Journal of Southern History 61, no. 2 (1995): 209–48; Matthewson, ‘Jefferson and the Nonrecognition of Haiti’, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 140, no. 1 (1996): 22–48; Douglas Egerton, ‘The Empire of Liberty Reconsidered’, in The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic, eds. James Horn, Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter Onuf (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2002), 309–30; Matthewson, A Pro-Slavery Foreign Policy: Haitian-American Relations during the Early Republic (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003); Gary Wills, “Negro President:” Jefferson and the Slave Power (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2003). For post-revisionist works, see Gordon S. Brown, Toussaint's Clause: The Founding Fathers and the Haitian Revolution (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005); Arthur Scherr, Thomas Jefferson's Haitian Policy: Myths and Realities (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011). For works on Haiti's foreign policy, see Justin Joseph, Les relations extérieures d'Haïti (Paris: Albert Savine, 1895); Louis Marceau Lecorps, La politique extérieure de Toussaint l'Ouverture (Port-au-Prince: Cheraquit, 1935); Auguste Nemours, Histoire des relations internationales de Toussaint Louverture (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l'Etat, 1945); Maurice ‘Les de la nation haïtienne Journal of Studies no. 2 Girard, Toussaint Louverture's Secret Diplomacy with and the United William and Mary Quarterly no. 1 (2009): Alfred Haiti's on in the Caribbean University Press, On in New see ‘Les de Saint-Domingue à la à et à in La révolution française et Haïti, ed. Hector, vol. 2, Robert Saint Domingue in the Making of in A The French Revolution and the Caribbean, eds. Geggus and David Gaspar (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, ‘The of Saint-Domingue to New and in The Series in History, eds. vol. 3 From Saint-Domingue to New and University of Press, 2007). On in see ‘The French in in the The of History and Biography no. Gary of Haiti in the American Black Saint in Philadelphia’, History no. Susan and dans of Color in Philadelphia’, in The Impact of the Haitian Revolution, ed. Geggus Revolution: Haiti and the Making of the Early Republic (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010). African and the Haitian Revolution: A of Historical in African and the Haitian Revolution, eds. Maurice and (New York: Routledge, Revolution, On US to Haiti, see and Haiti: and Black Nationalism in the (Westport, CT: Press, Black The of the Haitian Revolution on Black in African and the Haitian Revolution, eds. and For on the to Haiti, see reprint, PA: to the to Hayti of the Free People of in the United States (New York: and African and the Haitian Revolution, On Haitian see Alain ‘Le haïtien à la révolution à la de in La révolution française et Haïti, ed. Hector, vol. 2, Laurent, Six études sur Dessalines, On the Haitian to see Geggus, ‘The of in the New on the of Slave William and Mary Quarterly no. 2 Girard, French of in the Southern United States and the Caribbean, History no. (2007): Geggus, Impact of the Haitian Revolution, On the of the Haitian Revolution, see also William in Americas no. 1 Geggus and Geggus, ‘The and of The Impact of the Haitian Revolution on in Beyond The of in and the Caribbean, ed. (New York: and 2007), Geggus and eds., The of the Haitian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009). On French see Claude Auguste and Marcel Auguste, Les de Saint-Domingue: Contribution à l'histoire de l'expédition française de Saint-Domingue, 1979); Francis et en Annales historiques de la révolution française des Antilles 1801–1803’, in de l'esclavage dans les françaises et de la politique française d'Haïti, eds. and Marcel (Paris: French in the Age of (PhD University of 2004). For and of see Michel Hector, ed., La révolution française et Haïti: Filiations, ruptures, nouvelles dimensions, 2 vols. (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, Marcel and Bernard eds., La des des Contribution à l'histoire de de l'esclavage (Paris: and de ed., Haïti, (Paris: Société française 2003); ed., The of From to Victor Schoelcher, (1995; reprint, New York: 2003). For other works on the French Revolution and see la Annales historiques de la révolution française Doris ‘The Black to Slave in Haiti’, French no. (1995): Claude La France et la de Le des de France et la (Paris: Karthala, Laurent Dubois, and in the Revolutionary French Caribbean’, in The Revolution of 1800: Democracy, Race, and the New Republic, eds. James Horn, Jan Ellen Lewis, and Peter Onuf (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, La française et la fin des (Paris: La 2004); Girard, Bonaparte and the Emancipation in Saint-Domingue, French Historical Studies 32, no. (2009): La Napoléon (Paris: La Claude Le de Napoléon (Paris: 2005). Bernard Les de couleur dans les de la République et de (Paris: Karthala, 2007). The Haitian Revolution and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: Cambridge University Press, On see Garrigus, New on and the of the Haitian Revolution’, in Assumed Identities: The Meanings of Race in the Atlantic World, eds. Garrigus and Christopher Morris Texas University Press, Garrigus, Social and Free Colored on the of the Haitian Revolution’, Americas no. 1 (July 2011): Hoffman, ‘Mythe et Geggus, et le et le in La révolution française et Haïti, ed. Hector, vol. On the see Geggus, and Revolution: The of Saint-Domingue, Press, On the Leclerc expedition, see Nemours, Histoire militaire de la guerre d'indépendance de Saint-Domingue, 2 vols. (Paris: Berger-Levrault, Claude Auguste and Marcel Auguste, (Port-au-Prince: Henri Deschamps, 1985); Jan and Caribbean A of in the Haitian War of (Boulder, CO: Girard, The Slaves Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence University of Press, 2011). On see Alain Le ‘La dans les françaises du Annales historiques de la révolution française no. ‘La aux Antilles et en de à in La révolutionnaire aux et histoire histoire des eds. Roger and Charles de de la de de la and des contribution à de la Société (Paris: 1993); Jacques de Cauna, sur l'histoire de la en Revue de la haïtienne et de géographie no. (1996): Histoire de la en Haïti: Les de la Haiti: 2003); Cauna, et de Saint-Domingue à Haïti in de la Caraïbe Caraïbe ed. Université 2005), to John Garrigus on this On see Alfred Le haïtien (Paris: Gallimard, 1958); Pluchon, de Saint-Domingue à Haïti (Paris: Karthala, 1987); Geggus, Dayan, the The of the Haitian in Colonial the in the Americas, eds. and (New York: Routledge, On linguistic of see Le et (Port-au-Prince: études historiques et sur la d'Haïti (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie de l'Etat, Morris A of French 1964); Robert and University Press, 1966); Albert Le et (Paris: 1978); John and (New York: Cambridge University Press, Michel in of eds. John and Peter (London: On to see and ‘The Haitian and

Récupéré en direct depuis OpenAlex et désinversé. Les résumés ne sont pas conservés dans cette base de données : les index inversés représentent 8,6 Go des 9,3 Go de texte de la base, et le serveur dispose de 13 Go libres.