At the Border of Empires: The Tohono O'odham, Gender, and Assimilation, 1880–1934

This excellent study of gender, indigeneity, and empire in the southwest borderlands of the early twentieth century has resulted from a collaboration between two scholars trained in different subfields: Progressive Era public health and transnational smuggling. Like the borderlands, collaborative scholarship (particularly within the humanities) can result in a muddled effort with dissonant voices. At the Border of Empires, in contrast, largely succeeds in precisely identifying the power of the local to shape the national and beyond. Indeed, Andrae Marak and Laura Tuennerman argue that “it was at the edges of empire that local forces . . . had the most chance to impact the implementation of national policies” (p. 2). Utilizing a most effective analytical tool—gender—this study aims to unveil what actually happened, not “what the leaders and policymakers wanted to happen” (p. 2).In six short but substantive chapters focusing on the Tohono O'odham nation between the Dawes Act and the Indian Reorganization Act (from the 1880s to the 1930s), the authors analyze tensions between national assimilation polices implemented by the United States and Mexico and their local adoption (or resistance) by Tohono O'odhams, whose communities and villages straddled both sides of the border between Sonora and Arizona. This time period reflected dramatic (mostly devastating) changes across Indian country in Mexico and the United States. The Dawes Act ushered in the allotment and boarding-school eras, simultaneously undermining native land ownership, sovereignty, economic and political independence, and cultural autonomy. While many Progressive Era policies and reformers may have had the best intentions, the authors argue, they mostly disrupted Tohono O'odham marriage practices, ceremonial activities (which many times involved alcohol—a usual target for reformers), farming and ranching practices, and education.A somewhat disparate cross section of local, regional, and national organizations attempted to usher in these Progressive reforms on the vast, recently established Tohono O'odham reservation, including the Methodist and Catholic Churches, matrons, the Tucson business community, and the Office of Indian Affairs (OIA). While these groups competed with each other for Tohono O'odham hearts and minds, the authors argue that national assimilation connected them through the language of gender. All these groups believed that marriage meant monogamous (as opposed to polygamous) relationships, that proper education emphasized Anglo-American values (and thus eschewed Tohono O'odham language and culture), and that gambling and alcohol should be removed from Indian communities. Following these assimilative practices, in turn, resulted in strengthening traditional gender roles reflected in mainstream America. Most of the book is thus organized along these themes, in chapters with titles such as “Vices and Values,” “Marriage and Morals,” “Schools and Gendered Education,” and “Vocation.”At each of these intersections, however, Tohono O'odhams and their indigenous borderlands resisted or at least played a strong hand in negotiating gendered identities. Native parents and tribal leaders most intimately involved in managing the implementation of OIA policies ultimately decided how far assimilation could go. Passive resistance (i.e., not showing up to school, church, or work) frequently served as the strategy of choice—acts usually overlooked by historians but nonetheless essential to understanding the perseverance of indigenous autonomy. The frustration of agency officials and missionary agents bears this out, and the authors' meticulous combing of archival material like the National Archives and Records Administration reveals an impressive methodological approach (there are many vivid photographs throughout the book as well). At the Border of Empires succinctly utilizes these overlooked primary sources while also inserting itself in several historiographical and theoretical conversations. In a short amount of text, the book speaks to the history of the borderlands, the Progressive Era, and Native Americans.The final chapter also provides a comparative framework by highlighting the experiences of Tohono O'odhams in Sonora. Like those living in the United States, these communities lived at the periphery of empire. Unlike in most regions in Mexico, the state played a weak institutional role in Sonora, as it had in centuries past. In contrast to the United States, Tohono O'odhams here faced additional challenges for political recognition and corporate autonomy. Many thus frequently crossed the border to gain access to jobs and services on the Tohono O'odham reservation. The border—and identities—remained porous for some time to come. It is here (as well as in the first chapter, chronicling early Tohono O'odham history) that more comparative analysis would further strengthen this study—for example, looking at other binational indigenous communities along the Mexican and even Canadian borders. But ultimately, At the Border of Empires skillfully entices future scholars to further research these very spaces.

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