Legal Regime of Artificial Islands and Other Permanent Structures at Sea
Notice bibliographique
Résumé
Introduction. The 1969 Report of the UN General Secretary noted that 125 fixed platforms were used in offshore areas for the purpose of oil industry. “The International Law of the Sea” (Vol. 1 and 2) published in UK in 1994 provides that “approximately 6000 fixed platforms have been installed in offshore areas throughout the world”. In 2014 only in the area of the OSPAR Convention, 1992, more than 1300 offshore constructions were installed. As for January 2018, the majority of these constructions are in the North Sea (184), the Gulf of Mexico (175), the Persian Gulf (159), and offshore of Far East Asia (152) and Southeast Asia (152). In the other regions this number varies from 3 to 88, while the Canadian Arctic has the smallest number of offshore constructions limited to just 1 object. Accordingly, the issues of interpretation of UNCLOS articles on legal regime of artificial islands and other fixed structures at sea are becoming more pressing. Moreover, the interstate relations, regarding construction of artificial islands in offshore areas, need relevant legal framework to be in place, taking into account the constant growth of economic and military “competition” among countries, as well as the development of science and technologies applicable to offshore construction. Materials and methods . This paper dwells upon the international treaties and other legal instruments, which rely upon the terms “artificial islands”, “installations”, “structures” at sea for regulating relations among States and between States and other international law subjects. The materials for this paper are also commentaries of the UNCLOS, interpretation of the relevant articles of 1958 Geneva maritime conventions, applicable resolutions of the International Maritime Organization, and also definitions of the conventional terms suggested by scholars. The methodological basis of the research consists of general scientific and specific methods, including comparative method. Research results . Most specialists in the law of the sea who research similar topics dwell upon their personal definitions of the conventional terms mentioned above. Such specialists correctly note that the absence of such definitions in UNCLOS makes it difficult to interpret and apply relevant articles in a proper way. Meanwhile, the necessity for such interpretation and application is of practical value because such terms of UNCLOS relate firstly to relevant rights and jurisdiction of coastal and other States in maritime areas where artificial islands, installations and structures are used, including the territorial sea, the EEZ and the continental shelf. Nevertheless lots of different definitions of such terms suggested by scholars make it even more difficult to interpret and apply the rules of UNCLOS on artificial islands, installations and structures, including such sensitive areas of interstate relations as safety at sea and protection of the marine environment. Discussion and conclusions . The authors of this paper do not support any classification or definition of “artificial islands”, “installations” or “structures” or any other definition of other specific words used in UNCLOS for such terms. Instead the authors bring arguments to legal delineation of artificial islands from any other permanent structure at sea independently of the fact which particular word is used in UNCLOS for describing such a structure in a relevant article (“installations”, “structures”, “devices”, “equipment” etc.). It is argued in this paper that such legal delineation is caused by a difficult and comprehensive balance of interests achieved during the III Conference on the Law of the Sea, and such interests relating to economic, military, environmental interests of States, coastal and non-coastal, firstly in the EEZ and on the continental shelf.
Récupéré en direct depuis OpenAlex et désinversé. Les résumés ne sont pas conservés dans cette base de données : les index inversés représentent 8,6 Go des 9,3 Go de texte de la base, et le serveur dispose de 13 Go libres.
Comment cette classification a été obtenuedéplier
Prédiction distillée sur la base complète
Imitation des enseignantsNi prévalence calibrée, ni vérité terrain. Validation humaine à venir. Apprise à partir de 10 348 étiquettes directes de Codex et de 10 348 étiquettes directes de Gemma. Le mode candidate est l'union des têtes enseignantes seuillées; le consensus est leur intersection. Ces sorties portent le statut machine_predicted_unvalidated et ne sont ni des étiquettes humaines ni des étiquettes directes de modèles de pointe.
Scores Codex et Gemma par catégorie
| Catégorie | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Métarecherche | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens strict) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens large) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Bibliométrie | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Études des sciences et des technologies | 0,000 | 0,001 |
| Communication savante | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Science ouverte | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Intégrité de la recherche | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Charge utile insuffisante (le modèle a refusé de juger) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
Scores machine (provisoires)
Les deux têtes enseignantes du modèle étudiant, lues sur ce travail. Un score ordonne la base pour la relecture; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie, et le statut de validation accompagne chaque rangée tel quel.
Scores de référence d'un modèle non mature (critères de maturité non atteints, 7 itérations). Un score ordonne; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · tel quel depuis la passe de notation : score_only signifie que le nombre peut ordonner les travaux, et qu'aucune étiquette de catégorie n'en découleClassification
machine, non validéePrédiction automatique; un appel candidat d’une seule tête enseignante, pas un consensus.
Le détail, modèle par modèle et score par score, se trouve en fin de page sous « Comment cette classification a été obtenue ».