Author response: Molecular determinants of large cargo transport into the nucleus

Eukaryotes, such as animals, plants and fungi, store the genetic material within their cells inside a specific compartment called the nucleus. Surrounding the nucleus is a protective membrane which molecules must pass across in order to reach the cell’s DNA. Straddling the membrane are nuclear pore complexes, or NPCs for short, which act as the gatekeepers to the nucleus, shuttling thousands of different molecules back and forth whilst restricting access to others. Large cargoes need to have specific markers on their surface called nuclear localization signals in order to be transported by NPCs. Certain transporter proteins help the NPC carry large molecules across the membrane by binding to these signals. This generates the energy needed to overcome the barrier of transporting it across the membrane. Some viruses have nuclear localization signals of their own, which can exploit this transport system; these signals allow the virus to enter the nucleus and hijack the genetic machinery of the cell. It has been suggested that viruses have multiple copies of these surface signals to improve their chances of reaching the nucleus. However, it remained unclear how the number of nuclear localization signals affects the transport of large molecules into the nucleus. To answer this question, Paci et al. engineered a range of different sized particles derived from viral structures which had varying numbers of nuclear localization signals on their surface. These particles were inserted into human cell lines grown in the laboratory, and imaged to see how they were transported into the nucleus. The rate of nuclear transport was then measured for each particle, and this data was used to create a mathematical model. Paci et al. found that the larger the cargo, the more nuclear localization signals it needed to be efficiently transported across the membrane into the nucleus. This is because inserting big cargoes into the NPC requires more energy. Therefore, by increasing the number of surface signals transporter proteins can bind to, larger molecules are able to interact with the NPC and generate the energy required for crossing. These findings improve our current understanding of how nuclear transport could be hijacked by viruses. It could also help scientists who are developing targeted nanoparticles to deliver therapies for genetic conditions to the nucleus.

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