Indium as a critical mineral: A research progress report
Notice bibliographique
Résumé
Indium (In) is a post-transition metal of Group 13 in the Periodic Table. It is a highly volatile chalcophile element which behaves in a moderately to highly incompatible manner. Abundance of indium in the continental crust is estimated at 0.01 ppm. Indium has been widely used in high-tech products, especially in emerging industry technology and national defense and security sectors. Therefore, it is called “critical mineral” in developed countries. Indium becomes one of the critical metals to support vigorous development of China’s emerging strategic industries. More than 90% of indium is recovered as a by-product of zinc mining. The most recent assessment of global indium reserves in 2018 was 79000 tones. China accounts for more than 18.2% of global indium reserves, while Peru, Canada, USA and Russia together own more than 62.4%. Indium occurs in different types of ore deposits. Indium-rich deposits include volcanic- and sediment-hosted exhalative massive sulfide deposits, epithermal deposits, polymetallic base metal vein-type deposits, granite-related tin-base-metal deposits, skarn deposits and porphyry copper deposits. These deposits are commonly associated with active oceanic or continental plate margins and orogenic belts with steep geothermal gradients due to enhanced magmatic activities. Most of indium deposits are associated with highly differentiated granites. Biotite is the main carrier mineral of indium. Recent research indicates that the enrichment of indium does not increase with the increase of crystallization differentiation in felsic magmatic systems. The increase of magnesium concentration in biotite reduces the potential of indium mineralization. The joint action of alkaline and sub-alkaline mafic and granitic magmas is an important prerequisite for the formation of high-grade indium deposits. Volcanic systems provide favorable conducive environment for the enrichment of indium. There are few studies on the enrichment of indium in silicate minerals. Garnet is a major tin-bearing skarn mineral at the Dulong Sn-Zn deposit of Yunan Province. Based on LA-ICP-MS analysis, indium concentration is 166.0–629.0 ppm in the garnet that was formed in the early skarn stage and 1.6–10.0 ppm in the garnet that was formed in the late skarn stage. The data indicate that the earlier garnet is enriched in indium than the later one. The data also show that indium has an apparent covariant relationship with tin, but an inverse correlation with aluminum. Multi-stage fluid activities in the evolution of magmatic hydrothermal processes are the key to enrichment of indium. Overprinting of multi-stage hydrothermal processes plays an important role in the formation of high-grade indium deposits. For example, indium-rich sphalerite in the Hämmerlein skarn polymetallic deposit in Germany occurs around the early indium-free sphalerite grain, demonstrating overprinting of later indium-rich ore fluids. There are three ways for indium to substitute for zinc in sphalerite: (1) Cu++In3+↔2Zn2+, (2) Cu+/Ag++In2+↔2Zn2+, and (3) In3++Sn3++(vacancy)↔3Zn2+. The substitute of indium for zinc in sphalerite is slightly different due to the ore-formingelement (Cu, Ag, Sn, Ga, Ge, etc.). Tin can replace zinc with different valence state and other elements depending on the precipitation environment of sphalerite. Recent studies have shown that there are “indium window” and “indium explosion” that exist during the process of indium mineralization. Modern analytical technology and experimental simulation reveal the mechanism for “indium explosion” effect in the Dulong Sn-Zn deposit of Yunan Province. In this mechanism, lattice displacement and vacancies in small number within sphalerite facilitate indium enrichment in {111} direction in sphalerite. In summary, several items should be followed for the future research and exploration of resources of critical mineral indium: (1) Fully understand the occurrence state of indium in major carrier minerals and reveal mechanism for selective super-enrichment of indium; (2) improve our understanding of indium enrichment mechanism in different geological settings, which would effectively guide future exploration of indium deposits; (3) renovate indium recycling technologies and seek its substitutes.
Récupéré en direct depuis OpenAlex et désinversé. Les résumés ne sont pas conservés dans cette base de données : les index inversés représentent 8,6 Go des 9,3 Go de texte de la base, et le serveur dispose de 13 Go libres.
Comment cette classification a été obtenuedéplier
Prédiction machine sur la base complète
Imitation des enseignantsNi prévalence calibrée, ni vérité terrain. Validation humaine à venir. Le volet Gemma est une étiquette directe du modèle pour chaque travail de la base, lue sur la notice réduite au titre. Le volet Codex est un classifieur appris des 10 348 étiquettes directes de Codex et calibré sur les taux pondérés de l'échantillon; les champs sans appui suffisant ne portent aucun appel Codex. Le mode candidate est l'union des deux volets; le consensus est leur intersection. Ces sorties portent le statut machine_predicted_unvalidated et ne sont pas des étiquettes humaines.
Scores du classifieur distillé par catégorie (deux têtes)
| Catégorie | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Métarecherche | 0,002 | 0,001 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens strict) | 0,001 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens large) | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Bibliométrie | 0,003 | 0,004 |
| Études des sciences et des technologies | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Communication savante | 0,003 | 0,003 |
| Science ouverte | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Intégrité de la recherche | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Charge utile insuffisante (le modèle a refusé de juger) | 0,006 | 0,004 |
Scores machine (provisoires)
Les deux têtes enseignantes du modèle étudiant, lues sur ce travail. Un score ordonne la base pour la relecture; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie, et le statut de validation accompagne chaque rangée tel quel.
Scores de référence d'un modèle non mature (critères de maturité non atteints, 7 itérations). Un score ordonne; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · tel quel depuis la passe de notation : score_only signifie que le nombre peut ordonner les travaux, et qu'aucune étiquette de catégorie n'en découleClassification
machine, non validéePrédiction automatique; un appel candidat d’une seule source (Gemma direct ou Codex distillé), pas un consensus.
Le détail, modèle par modèle et score par score, se trouve en fin de page sous « Comment cette classification a été obtenue ».