Japanese-English Code-Switching by Postwar Speakers in Contemporary America
Notice bibliographique
Résumé
In her examination of Japanese-English bilingualism in Toronto, Nishimura (1995b) demonstrated that second-generation Japanese-Canadians varied their speech dependent on the audience they were addressing. According to her, the Japanese-Canadians spoke primarily in English to fellow second-generation speakers, while maintaining conversations in Japanese with those who had spent their formative years in Japan. However, when addressing audiences composed of both groups, they switched back and forth evenly between the two languages. Following research done by Woolard (1989) on the effects of societal influences on language, the state of the Japanese-Canadians can be related to the breakup of the ethnic enclaves in which they had lived prior to the onset of World War II, also described by Nishimura (1995a). In contrast, this study examines the language used by more recently arrived Japanese-American speakers, whose families had not undergone the political instability of earlier generations. Three groups of these postwar Japanese-English speakers, each consisting of one native speaker and two Japanese-American heritage speakers, provided the data for the study via conversations that were recorded during an internet call. These speakers came from a variety of educational backgrounds, and often spent at least some time in both Japan and the U.S. Following Myers-Scotton (1993), this study claims the diversity of parts of speech being used inside of one clause is a reliable metric that can be used in order to categorize a bilingual's speech. Using this method, the study finds that all of Nishimura's forms of bilingual speech are still being used among contemporary Japanese-Americans: a mostly Japanese version, a mostly English version, and a version in which the two languages are more evenly combined. The first two variants consist of the primary language with the occasional use of mostly single words from the other language, while the third contains a greater variety of grammatical items from both languages, and even grammatical overlaps that are not easily explainable in either language. Lastly, unlike the second-generation Japanese-Canadians from pre-war Japanese ethnic neighborhoods, who switched equally between Japanese and English when speaking to native speakers and fellow Japanese Canadians, the postwar second-generation Japanese-Americans in this study use primarily English in the same contexts. This occurs in spite of a consistently high opinion concerning the use of Japanese as held by the postwar speakers. Although the existence of the three variants of bilingual speech is confirmed among postwar Japanese-Americans, the choice of which variant to use is
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Comment cette classification a été obtenuedéplier
Prédiction machine sur la base complète
Imitation des enseignantsNi prévalence calibrée, ni vérité terrain. Validation humaine à venir. Le volet Gemma est une étiquette directe du modèle pour chaque travail de la base, lue sur la notice réduite au titre. Le volet Codex est un classifieur appris des 10 348 étiquettes directes de Codex et calibré sur les taux pondérés de l'échantillon; les champs sans appui suffisant ne portent aucun appel Codex. Le mode candidate est l'union des deux volets; le consensus est leur intersection. Ces sorties portent le statut machine_predicted_unvalidated et ne sont pas des étiquettes humaines.
Scores du classifieur distillé par catégorie (deux têtes)
| Catégorie | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Métarecherche | 0,001 | 0,002 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens strict) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens large) | 0,000 | 0,000 |
| Bibliométrie | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Études des sciences et des technologies | 0,003 | 0,001 |
| Communication savante | 0,002 | 0,001 |
| Science ouverte | 0,000 | 0,002 |
| Intégrité de la recherche | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Charge utile insuffisante (le modèle a refusé de juger) | 0,002 | 0,000 |
Scores machine (provisoires)
Les deux têtes enseignantes du modèle étudiant, lues sur ce travail. Un score ordonne la base pour la relecture; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie, et le statut de validation accompagne chaque rangée tel quel.
Scores de référence d'un modèle non mature (critères de maturité non atteints, 7 itérations). Un score ordonne; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · tel quel depuis la passe de notation : score_only signifie que le nombre peut ordonner les travaux, et qu'aucune étiquette de catégorie n'en découleClassification
machine, non validéePrédiction automatique; un appel candidat d’une seule source (Gemma direct ou Codex distillé), pas un consensus.
Le détail, modèle par modèle et score par score, se trouve en fin de page sous « Comment cette classification a été obtenue ».