Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield's Mid-to-Late Career, Philanthropy, and Activism in Nineteenth-Century America

A recently rediscovered portrait, an undated ambrotype of Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield (see figure 1),1 displays the singer in a fine silk evening dress elaborately trimmed with velvet and lace, and she is adorned with jewelry. Greenfield appears as a woman of means comfortably at ease in this scene, despite the long period of rigid stillness required for this early photographic technology to capture a clear likeness. She sits poised and smiling in a studio designed to mimic a tasteful mid-nineteenth-century domestic scene, and she seems to preside effortlessly over a well-appointed parlor. During Greenfield's lifetime, ambrotypes were rare and expensive. They were produced mostly as private keepsakes for intimate viewing. Like many, this one has the proportions of a pocket-sized book that opens to reveal an image in glass, framed by brass and velvet adornment. Greenfield's portrait is currently associated with a collection that includes the patriarch of the Howard family from Buffalo, New York. This family was among those whose patronage helped facilitate her public debut as a singer in 1851. The ambrotype was probably part of the family's private collection; Greenfield is known to have had lasting personal relationships with them.2 While the image was not likely intended to have a public function originally, it does now. The existence of such an image, and the relative wealth and associated class standing it displays, not only demonstrates Greenfield's association with a monied white family whose patronage helped facilitate her early career, but more importantly, it symbolizes her earned status, fame, and economic success as a nineteenth-century musician. This article interprets Greenfield's mid-to-late career autonomy and influence, providing new documentation of her musical and philanthropic career, which lasted until her death in 1876. In her early career, she necessarily relied on the introductions, patronage, and management provided by white Americans and aristocratic British abolitionists, but her activities from the mid-1850s onward reveal Greenfield's intentional moves to manage her own affairs and shape her legacy.Precious few biographical facts are known about Greenfield, and they are summarized elsewhere,3 but knowledge of her enslaved past, childhood in Philadelphia, and 1851 debut concert tour in the United States and Canada, followed by a tour of the British Isles, has provoked scholars from a range of disciplines to imagine the degree to which Greenfield transgressed racial, gender, and class boundaries and to interpret her status and influence in different communities.4 Juanita Karpf argues that, in the context of the white male-dominated world of nineteenth-century concert touring, Greenfield singing European concert music was “activist feminist discourse.”5 Daphne Brooks hails Greenfield's brave performances as deviant and disruptive of mid-nineteenth-century social norms and expectations, claiming that Greenfield's groundbreaking career inspired subsequent generations of African American performers with her “determined bravery and perseverance to pick and choose her own ‘roles’ in cultural performance.”6 Importantly, Karpf and Brooks have granted Greenfield agency and interpreted her legacy as profound even though biographical knowledge about Greenfield's career has been limited mostly to her first years of touring and reception during the early 1850s. It becomes easier to envision Greenfield as an activist when we have knowledge of her continued concertizing during and after the Civil War, as well as her close association with prominent activists and the philanthropic activities that earned her status in multiple communities, which is the focus of this article.We have generally relied too much on nineteenth-century biographical accounts of Greenfield's life, which discuss only her very early career and uniformly emphasize her white patrons’ role in her success.7 However, scholars interested in Greenfield have also used newspaper reviews and advertisements of her early-career performances to begin to understand how audiences made sense of her racialized and gendered and how different interpreted her on concert in and have used the of Greenfield's early career to discuss how and to of and a for the of African American singing article about the of Greenfield's reception in the early the reviews she in the African American and argues that Greenfield multiple also Greenfield's to white and cultural and to of and African While from reviews of her debut continued to the of her career, Greenfield and status, after her which autonomy and a more This article the of Greenfield's mid-to-late career, from in as well as nineteenth-century her the of white white and and activist While the reception of Greenfield's debut in 1851 an for her career, knowledge of her activities the Civil and the and in this understand how she the and of her performances of gender, and class as she multiple with we Greenfield's philanthropic and with we the to which Greenfield and and with a sense of social with white management to and a public from her debut in 1851 the Civil and after from the in Greenfield her with and had her debut concert tour the and as well as that followed to her tour and continued during the first different as the tour and a as in and continued to and a as they had for the first audiences the they for after and they were to with a of on the at the to for She continued to her of from and from the British The from the first such as and in the on during the in with her first as a of Greenfield's to those to have of musical of the with was also the during the first tour the United States a of and that African to the which provided for years after her Greenfield's tour of the her reception by British and for the as well as the she from the music that had been in the American she was they also an part of Greenfield's tour of the United A for a concert that the had from she with racialized of her as and the reception of her after the that she had the and was the whose as a are and whose musical was as we have from her success was of her the in a in New one was her at her European in Buffalo, New Greenfield's public career years a had her to to Greenfield's which the of the musical Greenfield's singing had for but her success in the provided newspaper with to her and musical This of relied on the that her enslaved required the provided by the British and a role for white Americans to function as for her continued more of her musical status that the Greenfield had earned in the of African American from the also new to Greenfield's touring from In with of Greenfield as an with a racialized of European was as the and after the was in the United States during this with was also a public of Greenfield's to prominent African American in musical and musical as well as her of and from this Greenfield in concert and with and Greenfield on the was from a musical family of and the of a in that and were not well known when they Greenfield provided and her more to Greenfield's with is of her in and even when the performances were framed by the of the of the Civil War, Greenfield continued in the United States and with a of more African American had been in with of Greenfield mostly music that when singing to a public until the Civil of as a her range was a this required Greenfield to the of an and but it a for the on the in and of the in the of the Civil War, Greenfield the first known of her public She for the in her which to one The she also when with one to the of and and the at this have been as that the they were not in the audiences have touring to and music that helped the that the as well as the of Greenfield's of and mostly during her first years of public life, her in the and as they in the early American of Greenfield's association with and British abolitionists, was even more of and social in the context of concert in continued to Greenfield's success of her concertizing as they had during her first were and in They the in and newspaper about and in the her association with and as a to her a to a in and only a in A in to her as and and in her had been a during the tour that she was as the of and as the a she for one of this and of her earned success the to at this of of her new status as an the public African Americans and of the with and African American continued to interpret Greenfield's success in of and social The Greenfield's singing as in to her a New that the of are Greenfield was as an of an enslaved African in that Greenfield been at the world musical and of in the of her a article from a that Greenfield as an to which with of the it is to with and it and to are and in the of to onward in of and the of and the of the of for a for African Americans that more Greenfield's as an of African Americans to The and is to a in a a and the as a Greenfield and as an to the she and her among and social African American had to Greenfield's provided to in a concert at the in of was of the of and with not in of at in of of and personal In the an of about and as of The was as interested in as in Greenfield's and of of the to and and from the ease and with which they among white is the of the of in of on Greenfield, as she was with white Americans to when not Greenfield's performances to and for the a in Greenfield's in first in a for and a in framed the of Greenfield's in in of was her first in a and much among to how the Greenfield was after the to her singing to a to to the of as Greenfield and of the fame, to the of Greenfield's performances as an the to Greenfield at the and in the when and and made also the reception of Greenfield's in this of Philadelphia, interpreted her success as for for those African Americans were on of The the of her as the over of Greenfield's were cultural interpreted not only as musical performances but that provided of social She was when was but were white by her singing and with dress and the Civil War, the of Greenfield's success and her over is provided by this newspaper in had not even a concert but have we of her years when it was a with her she the of and her among the in the musical In she of the She has her concert in the as a the of her and the of of to but the and with which was and of This the of and which of and in the the of her the on the she more In during the a this years when she had had much and we that her is not a for her and with she is one of the of the In the newspaper her and the which a for public a that the a with and and and the was not for a singer of her it to a more for her concert in that the of the reviews Greenfield's tour of the when of her and for her singing to for the the of the on the in the context of newspaper reviews of her but even when her the her concert in in as that it was to the music of European by a woman in and have been for an in in an her as in a of and for her This a she to during this tour that Greenfield's first on an but is followed by her first which in the this of from to and in a her as and her singing as of her in to over her The and by audiences had been a of reviews during Greenfield's first and more a it the she even among those her It is probably not a that from the tour that likely the and at her African American and as with her and Greenfield's tour the which African American had been to her as an of in was likely a but we have clear of over a of and that African American from her to a and such as a for about Greenfield's 1851 debut in Buffalo, New The which we to on the of Greenfield, in degree by the that as has it to the of the the singer and to with The of also from with a that an Greenfield have with the was her the had to Howard not to such an as that of the by that too and the too to influence to such a of she have more for and the for a of Greenfield of They are made in They her this on the white patronage, and management that African Americans to the of Greenfield and of African American the Greenfield and her white the of Greenfield's concert in in early when to to her a activist to at her and The with the that to that she She is the of that she her to for her the as her is a white woman of She of to to such her as a of in for from her when was in the the of this an to Greenfield's with that from her of Philadelphia, she had with in New and that the and management of her first tour had those that and not Greenfield, for the at her in to a concert in New not the of African Americans had for a concert in but were in the of the to Greenfield's to for we that she as a with a her to her of the African American to as the but Greenfield to to and the and a to and part in Greenfield's public success but not the concert African American to her as a of and class but with the that her of social The African American Greenfield for her of the of the not by the She the but the The and this the is as it seems to she is and not for her and public for the and African American to her to a for her and that of the The in New she her provided of African American and as they for to for Greenfield to for She have and to in the of an and which had and the to which she that she a woman as well as a and to with her the of the and to to in her own She is she that her as an her of much of it framed as the New concert that her tour with a on African American provoked an by African American provided Greenfield a to The an African American and Greenfield over the of at her concert in New The that they the of her concert and that she the concert at the in a few that it and that one They that the to the for and the Greenfield's her about the which was in the for of the and she to the to the on to that the of a the concert was as but it is not clear it she for the on her when she from the when she had from the tour and was her performances in the United Greenfield a more on She of in management not and was as an the of and of activist they were they were to a and to that and on Greenfield to discuss the the She and to her of and of that a in to newspaper she to in of her own were not the as were to of a different African American which had been of Greenfield, her as an figure for and enslaved in the United her and the of her cultural Greenfield a of not one to the of American for an the of an she and a This is of the of her and to a in the She in the and had not at her probably for that African Americans even they had during her tour the her to and the from the musical they have an of own and they the first few in her part with and and performances in New in her as a a her as a in the musical and that of and wealth are the by which we the with which we and the and it seems her had been Greenfield was more in the of African American by and on African American in the United States for more a Greenfield the her had been a in was in the of when African Americans had been only to the of and in the that had In a Greenfield to a as to to her and with African Americans had not her for concert and this the had her concert in that was to that the that the Greenfield was uniformly in African American in her of Greenfield have from the and she had a different career She have the to as concert have her from the of and it have at the over concert and Greenfield a of American to This was the more and more She to and influence on Greenfield's activities appears to have over as she continued her by and at the of her career, Greenfield a of with the first public concert she after her from the and she her While it was for of the to in public Greenfield's patronage of African American and to was to the she American public concert on with a to in the from of the and even of in the this which was the for role in In a few to Greenfield's at the the of to the of from a In and New as well as in Greenfield's at have been associated with to she provided in her of with a of Greenfield had close to which was among the first to from her even she for the had been in to for the of the and in in to to the which in the United States among and to to to the of a in was a and to the Greenfield this and social from early and in she also in at when she was not on tour for about a until after in Greenfield's to on by and to Philadelphia, and New had of African Americans during the and Civil and Greenfield to those to and A of her performances in during the of even that The had been in as the in the and it was associated with a and for African In Greenfield at the to the the Civil War, she for at a more In she and for in after tour from in and her concert to the of in that made one in In New she to and at and is well known as a for and to as of the African a few after her the Greenfield not singing during the Civil War, but the and the the of her for in she to in the she provided to African in and New In the she also to more Philadelphia, such as the in and as well as the in In the of Greenfield's for to in and as well as a in This was not her only she to on Elizabeth in a few years of singing to her African American This is that her and public debut were by white Americans in and Buffalo, and her debut tour only a reception from African to the her to and her sense of social a she was in the among public and African and her have made such as and However, even though in the have about public they likely in and to for the African American of economic were to and Greenfield was and to this for her and well she not to one over and a her does not to have been she that the and social of African the that she in an of Greenfield also concert to and that of the in were well for the and for an associated with the in The of Greenfield when were the concert with about after in Greenfield a concert for the of a family to family enslaved in In a concert at the an that have been the for which was that and a from Greenfield, to the The she an to the and from the Greenfield as a is that was in the when they in the of one of the A in New that, from the at the of the had a concert to the probably the of on Greenfield's as had for during the with the of in to Greenfield's concert for This was and it seems that was by own the was an that have and from Greenfield's concert in that rare of in Greenfield's philanthropic activities to have been by her and to African American for African American and to the demonstrates her sense of social for African Americans as well as her association with African Americans and philanthropic the United States and In the Greenfield to for African and for used such as and of to the that the have associated to with the American which was by of and the of from the United the was by African American and African Americans had the close to Greenfield during on tour with Greenfield in to not of the but to for in this The of the in limited for to Canada, the and but to Greenfield's to the African in and have been among African American and and it have her with She this for the personal of her own had to as part of the American to the United States of the she was for in were of African in Greenfield's as well as new the she have had to the accounts of in that were and in her of made to for and to the United States in and and were in the and New also accounts by to in by the American also the United States to the of Greenfield's for was new but In the and the African had the as the from which was to to and relationships in by claiming that were to and that of the were had Greenfield in The and of the of the United also the in in and to and activists and the have been a of of Greenfield's concert was an to the of the African of for with in but limited from Americans the to by importantly, Greenfield's in this and her for African American in have been by her own to Civil the of the and Greenfield's to the tour with in Greenfield to to for the She was not the in different such as for and for with to for African American Greenfield's were as for and and the in she for African American whose the of white In the on her concert in She also that such as the in Greenfield at at the in New in the the that to of This was the of New in During the in Greenfield at the A concert at the the In this she continued that African and such as the in New the and in and the for she the her philanthropic activities her of activists and earned her among African American in and the to mostly in domestic public However, was a a and and the of The she was by her that and had a social to the in she and a for at a when in but to to in of during the of and in to in a over at the and a at which Greenfield The at a concert to Greenfield, the with and Greenfield and the to newspaper the of Greenfield's at the was a for the the were the of to her Greenfield as the of and a few years she used her as the of the to Greenfield's concert in This a concert in this Greenfield is not by one of her in and in of is to the In to her musical and Greenfield is well and the and patronage of the of and and was and by the and she when in was not the first that had an of Greenfield's In the from to the by and and public by and Greenfield as of that the success of more African This of African Americans those had been Greenfield's career her had been of her but she as a of the African American public role as a and the of the from Greenfield's concert life, the were likely They have and of and and African American activist has framed and Greenfield as in her article that interprets how they of gender, and to on of the to the and that were to nineteenth-century Greenfield and nineteenth-century American of which was part of a of of the and her transgressed the boundaries of for by in While Greenfield is not known to have public of an activist her profound public as a singer and of her to for earned her and status as well as a on the to prominent Greenfield and African American to and African reveal her to and and she the of and that they had a to African social status African American more and It also to the and tasteful that social class social to Greenfield's that she the of and that and and had been a part of Greenfield's career it in the early 1850s. the that role a more prominent of her career, which was in Philadelphia, as well as an of her public which was on with the she seems to have more in during the and she have helped the at she a concert with and for her was to a career as a years with African American of poised to for in the Civil War, a musical to the at that she not only the musical she from Greenfield to but had from Greenfield's as In Greenfield's in and New were to a In early she with an at the in In the of that her as a in a of the which after the Civil War, in but also in as well as at a concert by the in New to newspaper the a of the that and in a concert at the in the of touring the and the with Greenfield had this at but it was likely the first such tour for the of that had a imagine the and the had the tour that had as the in Greenfield appears to have had more autonomy in her had to African American musical and were a at the African about a concert by the of the article Greenfield's as a to the of the much the to the was as a of was the of after an a that the in and of in a of that a collection of the touring of her musical with Greenfield in the of Greenfield's in status among African American is her in of a that Civil and of the of during the and early of as of the and the were in the for social and During the first for to which and were Greenfield have been for of her but she her in the Greenfield's in the and reviews of the on her that her rare musical of to the an African American in had to one of Greenfield's in also of the in her were she that Greenfield at which was a to Greenfield's singing was to the it the and it the have associated Greenfield with the of the first of the in by her tour in and to British were This African American had the and in had to African American but not to the public that the The on the The for and audiences and music at the and by the The for evening that the to and and much and the of and Greenfield's to the African American had and of her of the a Greenfield's the of African American not her her was the of the she a more and was by and to is in that and in the were as an of

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