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Previous article FreeIndexPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreAAaltonen, Mikko, 365Adams, John Quincy, 107Addams, Jane, 112Affordable Care Act, 357Alberta. Alberta Prison Project, 154–157, 159–160, 162–163, 165, 167–173; success in managing prison population, 30, 33–34, 34n24, 45. See also CanadaAlliance for Safety and Justice, 380, 382American Civil Liberties Union, 70Anderson, Hans Christian, 11Andersonville Prison, 247anxiety disorders, 84–85. See also mental healthArnold Ventures, 69Aryan Brotherhood, 255, 257, 260, 261, 276–277Ashker v. Governor of the State of California, 238, 284BBachelet, Michelle, 68Barr, William, AG, 73Bentham, Jeremy, 18, 19Biden, Joe, Pres., 23, 74Blair, Tony, PM, 22bloodborne diseases, 309–310, 312, 315–316, 322–323, 325, 327, 335. See also HIVBlumstein, Alfred, 108, 121, 124–125Boas, Frank, 112Boksán, K., 331Bonger, Willem, 121Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo, 114–115Brayne, Sarah, 367broken windows policing, 128, 445, 447Brown, Jerry, Gov., 32–33Brown v. Plata, 32, 356–357, 450CCalhoun, John C., 107, 114, 128California: disease outbreaks, 63, 65, 66, 73, 77; gangs, 238, 242, 247, 249, 250–251, 252, 254, 255, 261, 270, 284; influenza epidemics, 63; overcrowding, 450; sentence reform efforts, 382; success in managing prison population, 31, 32–33, 45Cameron, David, PM, 9, 41Canada: Correctional Service Canada (CSC), 152, 162; cultural genocide in, 192–196; current social situation, Indigenous peoples, 228; decolonization; components, 224–225; recommendations, 225–228; Indian Act, 193–194, 200, 208n22; Indigenizing initiatives, 188; National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG), 190; Native Brotherhood movement, 190, 196–197, 211; residential school system, 160, 160n15, 190n2, 193–195, 200, 206, 208–209, 212, 220–222, 225; Sixties Scoop, 191, 191n3, 194, 200. See female imprisonment, IndigenousChen, Daniel L., 67Churchill, Winston, PM, 8, 40Clinton, Bill, Pres., 22–23, 24Cloward, Richard, 117coercive mobility, 126–127cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), 285, 326ComALERT (Community and Law Enforcement Resources Together), 337–338Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT), 40, 68Committee on the Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, 3, 127, 401community-based services, 163, 336–337, 382–383, 385community punishments, Europe, 10, 29, 39community service alternatives, 29, 38–39, 71, 337, 412community services: Justice Community Opioid Use Innovation Network, 337community supervision, harm generated by, 441, 443, 445, 447, 452–455, 456, 457conditions and programs studies, 39–42consequentialist theory of punishment, 19–20convict leasing, 109coronavirus pandemic. See COVID-19Cosby, Bill, 21, 23Council of Europe, 72Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, 68Council on Criminal Justice, 75COVID-19: CARES Act, 73; Color of Coronavirus Project, 69; compassionate release, 75; decarceration during, 61–63, 67–76, 351; disabled inmates’ increased risks, 70; England and Wales lockdown, 81–85; home confinement, 77–78; infection rates, 60–61; lessons learned, 87–88; lockdown effects, 61–62, 83; medical care curtailed, 79; prison death rates from, 60–61; racial vulnerability impacts, 69–70; staff shortages, 41–42, 79–80, 81–82; telephone policies changed, 78, 83; visitation suspended, 78–79, 81; World Health Organization recommendations, 79Craigie, Terry-Ann, 362–363Cressy, Donald, 251crime: racial differences in commission, 128; theories, 27, 121criminalization, careers in: courts and jails, 446–447; defined, 437–438; institutional traps, 443–444; “mass probation” stresses prolonging, 452–455; and poverty, 438–439; and racial control, 438–439; system harm, 440–442DD’Amato, Alfonso, 22Danesh, John, 317decarceration, as response to COVID-19: England and Wales, 82; failures, 69–70; as human rights issue, 68–71; impediments to, 74–76; United States, 71–72, 72–74; various countries, 71–72, 74–75Decker, Scott, 247, 269–270, 273, 275–276, 278, 287, 289Denmark, 39, 365, 412depression, 80–81, 84–85, 195, 309, 316–317, 450. See also mental healthDickens, Charles, 11Dinovitzer, Ronit, 402Dirkzwager, Anja, 40disease: limited health care access, 65; mobility of staff and short-term inmates, 65, 66–67; overcrowding, 65; poor living conditions, 65, 66; preexisting conditions, 64–65. See also health care, specific conditionsdiversionary programs, 29, 31, 38–39Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 7–8double jeopardy rule, 21, 28n18Downes, David, 8–9n2, 40drug interventions, in-prison: access and barriers to, 333–334; attempts to reduce availability, 320–322; effectiveness, 326–328, 332–333; failure of abstinence, 335–336; group-based counseling, 330–331; harm reduction approaches, 311, 334, 336, 338; medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD), 331–332; and mental health problems, 309; multiple modalities, 326–328; therapeutic communities (TC), 328–330; types used, 321–322drug-involved offenders: females, 309, 312; in-prison markets, 320; recidivism rate, 319; reentry challenges, 323–325, 337drug use disorders, prisoners: bloodborne diseases, 316, 322–323, 325; in females, 318–319; homelessness, 317–318; compared to general population, 312–316; mental health disorders, 316–317, 323; suicide, 323Du Bois, W. E. B., 105–106, 112Eelectronic monitoring, 29, 38–39, 72, 73, 369, 457Estelle v. Gamble, 356–357European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 68European Convention on Human Rights, 70European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), 9, 40–41European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 321expressive punishments, 20–21FFamily History of Incarceration Survey (FamHIS), 417family stress models, 411family visits, 78, 81Fazel, Seena, 317female incarceration: children, 149–150, 169–172, 174–175, 176; drug use disorders, 318–319; early childhood victimization and mental health issues, 142–143; external conditions affect experience, 175; intimate and biological relationships, 143–144; lack of basic necessities, 158–159; mass incarceration, 145–146; material deprivation’s effect, 146–147; postrelease resources, 175; studies revealing changing dynamics, 145–146; substance misuse, 143–144; as temporary refuge, 156–158, 159, 173–174, 353; trauma-informed approaches and programs, 175–176; treatment and programming in, 148, 162–166; variability, importance in policies, 175; variety of experience worldwide, 176; victimization and abuse experiences, 147–148, 159–162; work programs, 148–149, 166–169, 174. See also under parental incarcerationfemale prison population: Canada, 152, 154, 156–158, 159–160, 162–163, 165, 168–174, 188; Mexico, 152–154, 155, 158–159, 160–161, 162, 163–164, 165–167, 168–169, 172–175; Norway, 152, 155–156, 159, 161–162, 164–172; racial and ethnic patterns, 141–142Ferri, Enrico, 26Finland, 10, 12, 15, 27, 29–31, 39, 77, 365Floyd, George, 129France, Anatole, 439Ggang affiliation: active and passive entrance to, 276; embeddedness, 273–274, 274t; est. proportion of affiliated prisoners, 272t; indicators, 272; leaving, 276–278, 289; motivations, 275–276; recruitment, 275, 289gang management strategies, 279; concentration methods, 283; documentation procedures, Arizona, 281; housing dispersion methods, 281–283; intelligence and documentation practices, 279–281, 289; isolation methods, 283–284; liabilities-based interventions, 284–286; management and intervention strategies, 280t; obligations-based interventions, 286–287gang misconduct: measures, 268t–269t; statistics, 267–271gangs, models and pathways: 249–251; development, 256–257; enhancement, 266; for existence, 250i; facilitation, 266; importation, 251–252; informal diffuse, 256; instrumental rational, 255–256; management, 252–253; selection, 265gangs, certification and affiliate validation, Arizona, 280i; composition and structure defined, 288; defining properties vs descriptive statistics, 245t; demographics, age, 254; federal and state prisons, 248i; history and origins, 247–253; in-prison homicides by, 263–264; as instruments of order, 259–263, 288; management and intervention strategies, 280t; heterogeneous reality of, 258–259; by segregation category, 256; race and ethnic makeup, 254–255, 288; in rehabilitation programming, 262–263; salient properties, 245–247; scholarly works trajectory, 239i; seen as source of disorder, 260–261, 288; as social network, 261; varying definitions, 240, 242–247; women’s, 254. See also specific gangsGarland, David, 21Germany, 17, 26, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39, 43, 44, 149, 353Goffman, Erving, 440Gong, Neil, 375Gordon, Grey, 363Gotti, John, 260Grawert, Ames, 362–363Great Migration, 110, 116, 118Gypsy Jokers, 247HHagan, John, 402Harm Reduction International, 71, 72harm reduction. See under drug useHart, H. L. A., 18, 20Haskins, Anna, 371Hatton, Erin, 361Hayes, Adrian J., 314–315, 318healing lodges, 188, 227, 228health care: inmate exclusion policies of Medicaid, 367; imprisonment effects, 358–359, 408; preexisting vulnerabilities in populations, 64. See also specific diseasesHegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 18–19hepatitis, 64, 312, 316, 323, 325heroin, 309, 311, 313, 319, 321–323, 324“hidden sentences,” 365–367Hirst v. United Kingdom, 9HIV, 64, 312, 315–316, 323, 325, 357, 360, 408, 409, 451HM Inspectors of Prisons, 41–42homicide, in prison, 246, 259, 263–264, 291, 358n4, 450–451Houle, Jason N., 366, 367housing: GI Bill, 119; home ownership gap, racial, 368, 369; racist policies, 118, 119,Howard, John, 60Human Rights Watch, 60–61, 71Hungary, 17, 23, 35–36Iimmigrant experience, European contrasted to Blacks, 118–119incarceration: adaptations to, 354–355; commitments to end, 374–375, 385; community-based alternatives, 455; ending by social investment, 381–384; growth of, 121–124; increases racial inequality, 126–128incarceration, effects of: disease transmission, 408; earnings loss postrelease, 362–364; economics, 360–361; family relationships, 369, 372; health care, pre-, during and post, 356–358; “hidden sentences,” 365–366; inhospitable local conditions, 365; internalized stigma and trauma, 365; partners and family members: 407–408; prison work, illusion of, 361–362; romantic relationships, 369–371; social stigma, 364–365; U.S. as outlier, 422; U.S. data, 414–416; U.S. rates, 414t; on wealth accumulation, 368incarceration, effects of parental: 369, 416–420; Black families, 354, 360–361, 407; children’s well-being, 371–373, 405; data and research in, 411–412; difficulty in determining, 369, 407; maternal, 369, 405–407; postrelease surveillance, 366–367; prevalence, 418t; prior social challenges, 420–422; prior systemic involvement, 421t; psychological harm, 354–356; by race/ethnicity, 419t; on recidivism, 373–374; as refuge, 353; school performance, 405; sentence length and, 416; studies, 410–411, 413incarceration rates: 17 countries, 13t; Central and Eastern Europe, 35t; determination methods, 11–12; difficulty in comparing, 14; Eastern European countries, 37t; Finland, 12; Hungary and Poland, 36t; measuring severity of criminal justice systems, 30–38; seven countries, 15t; sentencing policies; U.S., 12, 14, 350–351; Western Europe, 12incarceration rates, Black: attributed to inherent traits, 117; as consequence of racism, 113–114; historical, 108; labor market, 126–127; postwar in North, 109–110; recent, U.S., 350–351incarceration rates, female, 139, 187–188. See also CanadaIndigenized prisons programming: access to ceremonial materials restricted, 218–221; connecting with culture and identity through, 208–213; criticisms, 206, 218––224; Pathways program, 207–208; public health benefits, 198–199; staff restricting access, 218, 221–222; therapeutic components, 213–218. See also CanadaIndigenous prisoners: homelessness, 209t; illicit drug use, 210t; victimization and race/ethnicity, 214t;infectious disease. See specific diseasesinfluenza, 63, 451Irwin, John, 250, 251, 355JJackson, Andrew, 107Jim Crow laws, 108–109, 113, 127, 403, 438Johnson, Lyndon, Pres., 117, 121KKaiser, Joshua, 366, 367Kant, Immanuel, 18Kimble, Cameron, 362–363King, Roy, 34–35, 369–370Klein, Ralph, Premier, 33–34Kohler-Hausmann, Issa, 416, 447Krajewski, Krzysztof, 35–36Kruttschnitt, Candace, 40Kuptesvych-Timmer, Anastaslia, 360Llabeling theory, 121, 444Lappi-Seppälä, Tapio, 39, 46Lawes, Lewis E., 247legal financial obligations (LFOs), 350, 363Lévay, Miklós, 36Lieberson, Stanley, 118Liebling, Alison, 355, 450life-without-parole laws, 22, 28, 44n28Lincoln, Abraham, Pres., 109Liszt, Franz von, 26Looney, Adam, 360MMadoff, Bernard, 22, 23, 44“Mandela Rules” (United Nations Revised Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners), 63, 70, 77Mannheim, Hermann, 1, 2, 3–4Maroto, Michelle Lee, 368Massoglia, Michael, 360, 364–365, 369–370mediation as incarceration alternative, 38–39mental health: during COVID, 42, 62–63, 68, 75–76, 79, 80–81, 84–85; and drug use, 309, 310, 312, 316–317, 323, 324, 327, 335; in females, 142–143, 318–319; gangs, 285; Indigenous, 195, 221, 223–224MeToo movement, 21Mexican Mafia, 247, 255, 257, 259n5, 262, 264, 270, 276–277Michael, Jerome, 26–27Mitchell, Ojmarrh, 249, 272, 286–287Model Penal Code, 26Mogk, Jessica, 318Moore, Kelly E., 331Morgan, Rod, 22Morris, Norval, 9–10, 18, 20Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 24Muhammad, Khalil Gibran, 112, 116, 438Myth of Monstrosity, 377–381, 383NNational Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine, 61, 69National Academy of Sciences Committee on the Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, 3, 401Netherlands, 2, 10North Carolina, successfully managing population, 31–32, 45Novisky, Meghan A., 64–65, 81OObama, Barack, Pres., 115Ohlin, Lloyd, 117opioids, 142n5, 311, 322, 326–327, 331–334, 337Orbán, Viktor, 23overcrowding and prisoner movement, 65–66, 449, 450Ovington, Mary White, 112Owen, BarbaraPPager, Devah, 364, 443–444Pascal, Blaise, 31Penal Reform International, 71Petersilia, Joan, 2–3Petersilia, Michael, 2–3Poland, 17, 35–36, 44n29political expediency, punishment for, 22–23posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 80, 84, 85, 355, 381, 383poverty-crime connection, 120–121, 122n7, 151–152, 191, 194, 363, 364, 366, 367, 438–439, 446–447, 454Prasad, Monica, 385President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (PCLEAJ), 117, 120prison conditions and programs, 39–42Prison Litigation Reform Act, 41Prison Policy Initiative, 73prison reform and Quakers, 11prisons, rural siting of, 408probation: community-based penalties, 39, 455; community supervision (“mass”), 452–455; intensive, 455Probation, 440–444proportionality principle, 26n16, 70–71punishment: reasons for imposing, 20–23; severe, Eastern and Central Europe, 23; theories: consequentialism, 19–20; mixed, 19–20; retributivism, 18–19; as symbolic acts, 23–24Rracism: as cause of crime, 128–129; changes needed, 129–130; classic and traditional, 106; color-blind, 114–115; modern, 116–120; in sentencing, 122–126; shifting concepts, 111–114; superiority-based, 114. See also housing, Jim Crow, Myth of Monstrosity, slaveryRaphael, Steven, 370Reagan, Ronald, Pres., 33recidivism: criminal justice traps, 443–444; incarceration’s dubious effects on, 86–87; rates, 442Redburn, Steven, 356, 357reentry, burdens on families, 408; criminal justice traps in, 441–444; drug-involved individuals, 323–325; need for community services, 337–338; police role in, 445–446; racialized, 337–338. See also recidivismrehabilitation, falls from favor, 27–29Reinhart, Eric, 67Remster, Brianna, 369–370restorative justice (RJ) movement, 1, 383–384retributive theory of punishment, 18–20Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 69Rodriguez, Nancy, 413Rothman, David, 9–10Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 193SSan Quentin Prison, 63, 65São Paulo Court of Justice, 75Saskatoon Tribal Justice Program, 196Schnittker, Jason, 364–365Schotland, Sara, 70, 76Schwarzenegger, Arnold, Gov., 449–450Scott, Duncan Campbell, 193secondary prisonization, 403sentence enhancements, 440sentence length: costs, 382–383; European-American contrast, 15–18; European countries and United States, 16t; indeterminate, 25–26, 28n18, 44; mandatory minimum laws, 28; myth of monstrosity, 378–381; reforms for minor offenses, 377–378; violent crime, 376–377Simon, Jonathan, 22, 59–60, 61Sing Sing Prison, 247Sirois, Catherine, 367slavery, 107, 117–118solitary confinement: adverse effects, 30, 80–81, 85, 356; during COVID, 77, 80–81; defined, 77–78; of gang members, 283–284; and Quakers, 11; suicide, 80, 81Solomon, Arthur, Elder, 197, 224staff, prison: attitudes towards inmates, 64; drug problems, 320, 327, 334, 336; in gang management, 223, 279; health issues, 79–80, 81–82, 357, 408, 451–452; mobility, 67; racism, 205–206, 206n17, 221–222; restricting Indigenous prisoners, 219–220, 220n34; as source of drugs, 320; supportive, 164–165, 217–218, 223; violence against, 83, 263Stampp, Kenneth, 106–107Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners. See Mandela RulesStanley, Leo, M.D., 63Stewart, Rory, 82Stuart, Forrest, 409suicide, 80, 81–82, 147–148, 148n6, 150, 169, 194, 323, 355, 359, 449–450Sweden, 20Sykes, Gresham, 146–147, 354, 450system-induced harms: infectious disease exposure, 451–452; overcrowding, 449–450; retreat from rehabilitation programs, 448–449; violence, 450–451TTannenbaum, Frank, 121therapeutic communities (TCs), effects on recidivism, 328–330three-strikes laws, 20, 22–23, 28, 32, 44n28Toch, Hans, 450Tocqueville, Alexis de, 11Travis, Jeremy, 356, 357Trollope, Frances, 11Trump, Donald, Pres., 74truth-in-sentencing laws, 28, 449tuberculosis, 64, 316, 323, 325, 451Turner, Nicholas, 360Turney, Kristin, 368, 371–372, 406, 411typhus, 59, 60, 86UUN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 68, 74Uniform Crime Reports, 120, 124, 438UN Inter-agency Standing Committee (IASC), 68–69, 74University of Alberta Prison Project. See Alberta, CanadaUN Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, 68Vviolence, in prison, 81–84, 260, 263–264, 266–271, 283–284, 290–291, 308, 320, 355, 450–451. See also drugs, gangsviolent crime, 124–125, 376–380, 381–384. See also Myth of MonstrosityViolent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, 23WWacquant, Loic, 173, 409Walker, Michael, 416Warner, Cody, 366, 367War on Crime (Johnson), 121War on Drugs, 121, 124, 124n8, 126, 140, 144, 146wealth opportunities, benefiting whites, 118–120; Indigenous, 194; lost, 368; postrelease, 350, 362–364. See also housingWechsler, Herbert, 25–27Weinstein, Harvey, 21, 23Western, Bruce, 324, 356, 357, 358n4, 363, 366–368, 370, 371Wildeman, Christopher, 359–360, 371–372, 406, 410, 412Wilson, James Q., 24women. See female. Previous article DetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Crime and Justice Volume 512022Prisons and Prisoners Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/723098 © 2022 The University of rights

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