Contestation: The politicization of trade policy
Notice bibliographique
Résumé
The TTIP negotiations have provoked unprecedented engagement by civic interest groups in trade policy and unique levels of popular opposition, particularly in Europe. The vigour and breadth of this opposition caught political leaders by surprise. Their lack of preparation for such a coordinated and vocal response could hardly be considered a failing, given that previous preferential trade agreements had attracted little, if any, public attention. The political significance of the popular opposition in Europe was amplified by the likelihood that any agreement would have to be ratified by each EU member state and, depending on the governance structure of the states, even some subnational parliaments, in addition to the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament (see Chapter 6). The European Commission countered the popular opposition by increasing transparency, enhancing consultation and modifying its negotiating position, particularly with respect to ISDS. Opposition to TTIP spilled over to threaten the EU’s agreement with Canada (CETA). In addition, the EU’s new position on ISDS in TTIP has become the template for its trade agreements with other countries, including those with Canada and Vietnam. Popular opposition to TTIP, therefore, has had far-reaching consequences. Although public opposition to TTIP was unusually intense, it was far from uniform. Only a few EU member states witnessed intense public opposition. TTIP was also almost entirely absent from public debate in the US. Interestingly, there has been almost no opposition in Europe to the EU–Japan FTA, which has been negotiated in parallel to TTIP and and for which a political agreement was reached in July 2017. The contrast between the opposition to TTIP and that to prior and contemporary negotiations prompts the question: what was so special about TTIP? Here I make a three-step argument: First, as developed in Chapter 3, TTIP was uniquely ambitious in its efforts to address behind-theborder measures that affect trade. These measures have more direct implications for citizens than do tariffs. Moreover, because the US and EU are near peers, neither could dictate terms to the other. This raised the prospect that each might have to modify its rules.
Récupéré en direct depuis OpenAlex et désinversé. Les résumés ne sont pas conservés dans cette base de données : les index inversés représentent 8,6 Go des 9,3 Go de texte de la base, et le serveur dispose de 13 Go libres.
Comment cette classification a été obtenuedéplier
Prédiction machine sur la base complète
Imitation des enseignantsNi prévalence calibrée, ni vérité terrain. Validation humaine à venir. Le volet Gemma est une étiquette directe du modèle pour chaque travail de la base, lue sur la notice réduite au titre. Le volet Codex est un classifieur appris des 10 348 étiquettes directes de Codex et calibré sur les taux pondérés de l'échantillon; les champs sans appui suffisant ne portent aucun appel Codex. Le mode candidate est l'union des deux volets; le consensus est leur intersection. Ces sorties portent le statut machine_predicted_unvalidated et ne sont pas des étiquettes humaines.
Scores du classifieur distillé par catégorie (deux têtes)
| Catégorie | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Métarecherche | 0,018 | 0,021 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens strict) | 0,001 | 0,000 |
| Méta-épidémiologie (sens large) | 0,001 | 0,001 |
| Bibliométrie | 0,002 | 0,004 |
| Études des sciences et des technologies | 0,010 | 0,028 |
| Communication savante | 0,022 | 0,008 |
| Science ouverte | 0,002 | 0,011 |
| Intégrité de la recherche | 0,005 | 0,008 |
| Charge utile insuffisante (le modèle a refusé de juger) | 0,007 | 0,001 |
Scores machine (provisoires)
Les deux têtes enseignantes du modèle étudiant, lues sur ce travail. Un score ordonne la base pour la relecture; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie, et le statut de validation accompagne chaque rangée tel quel.
Scores de référence d'un modèle non mature (critères de maturité non atteints, 7 itérations). Un score ordonne; il n'affirme jamais une catégorie.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · tel quel depuis la passe de notation : score_only signifie que le nombre peut ordonner les travaux, et qu'aucune étiquette de catégorie n'en découleClassification
machine, non validéePrédiction automatique; un appel candidat d’une seule source (Gemma direct ou Codex distillé), pas un consensus.
Le détail, modèle par modèle et score par score, se trouve en fin de page sous « Comment cette classification a été obtenue ».