Chinese Troupes on Tour in Latin America: From Chinatown Itineraries to Cold War Cultural Diplomacy

Long closely and narrowly focused on practices in (and representations sanctioned by) the polities of cultural China, academic research is increasingly attentive to the global and even multiethnic reach of Chinese performance past and present. Chinese performance history in many regions of the world is becoming gradually more visible, including in maritime Southeast Asia, Australia, and the United Kingdom.1 Nevertheless, barriers of genre, language, and national history still require lateral, integrated, and multilingual approaches. Several major regions with extensive histories of Chinese performance have been ignored or underrepresented. More research on the northern circuit into Russia, the southwestern itineraries of mainland Southeast Asia, and Latin America would be welcome.2As part of these increasingly global perspectives, Chinese performance studies have in recent decades grown more attuned to transnational history and practice. Recent developments in xiqu (Chinese opera) studies, for example, have taken an interest in transnational networks that enable the production of xiqu abroad,3 in xiqu as a “transnational root of cultural identification,”4 and in xiqu adaptations of Shakespeare.5 Research focused on North American Chinatowns as cultural sites has shed greater light on the development of itineraries of Cantonese opera, especially as it relates to circuits in China and other parts of Asia.6 The way in which, by the 1920s, Cantonese opera “businesses in San Francisco and New York became intertwined with those in Canada and Cuba” is coming to be much better understood. The wide reach of these networks means that engagements farther afield (e.g., in Lima, Matanzas, or Mexicali) no longer surprise.7 A later stage of Chinese performance in the Americas involved the use of theater in cultural diplomacy during the early Cold War. This, too, has been garnering greater attention.A focus on Latin America can extend a view of Chinese performance further, beyond simplistic East-West axes. The rich and varied cultures of Latin America have been greatly underrepresented in Chinese performance scholarship; although, with 1.8 million persons of Chinese descent, their ethnic Chinese populations exceed those of Europe and are more than double Australia's.8 While historians and anthropologists of Chinese communities in Cuba, Mexico, and Peru have each noted the historic presence of xiqu, as well as of orchestras and dance ensembles, attempts to integrate research on these communities into global narratives and perspectives on the Chinese arts are still in their infancy. In this article, I advance a global perspective by connecting Chinese performances in Latin America with transnational Chinese performance networks elsewhere. I do so by relating two distinct periods of Chinese theater in Latin America to global patterns. As an early attempt, this article is partly circumscribed by source availability—for one thing, digitization of Latin American newspaper and archival sources lags behind that of Western Europe, North America, and East Asia. Doubtless, as local scholarship proliferates—and as new generations of scholars engage with community or diplomatic archives, as well as continuing diasporic performance—new historical arcs will appear and the story will be further clarified and enriched.Offering a more complete history is one motivation for this essay, but the stakes go beyond that. In the study of networks such as those generating and sustaining itinerant theaters, a pervasive methodological nationalism—the “assumption that the nation/state/society is the natural social and political form of the modern world”—is liable to produce histories running in parallel tracks, failing to generate vital transnational perspectives.9 The detrimental focus on the point at the expense of the line is serious enough, but the question of research geography has further ethical domino effects. As historian Mae Ngai notes, “A focus on the transnational, with its emphasis on multiple sites and exchange, can potentially transform the figure of the ‘other’ from a representational construct to a social actor.”10 Transnational approaches also reveal the partiality of histories that rely exclusively on the dyad of target society and source, or on the majority-minority paradigm for approaching issues of ethnicity and race.Over the last decade, scholars have paid greater attention to the extensive transnational networks of Cantonese opera “that encompassed many verifiable locations in Canada and the United States, with feeder connections to the neighboring countries of Peru, Mexico, and Cuba.”11 Some San Francisco opera companies in the 1920s had “offshoots in Los Angeles and Vancouver, as well as long-term engagements in Seattle, Portland, and cities as far away as Mexicali, Mexico City and Havana.”12 Immigration records show steamships transporting Cantonese opera performers between Havana and New York as well as Mexican and American ports on the Gulf of Mexico.13Cantonese opera was the principal Chinese performance genre in Latin America before the Second World War. Recent research has clarified the genre's rise, disappearance, and legacy in Latin America.14 Cuban Cantonese opera has attracted particular attention: The work of documentary filmmaker Pok Chi Lau in Cuban Chinese (2010) brought the community and certain actors to greater Anglophone attention. S. Louisa Wei's Havana Divas (2018) disseminated the story of the divas more widely among the Anglophone world than would have seemed likely a decade ago.15Evidence for Cantonese opera performance in Cuba dates to the final quarter of the nineteenth century. Chinese labor immigration to Cuba (then a Spanish colony) had begun in earnest by 1847, but there is little or no record of performance until the arrival of many Cantonese from California in 1860. Free of the exploitative labor contracts that had burdened earlier migrants who came directly from southern China, some of these newcomers had ready access to capital and thereby expanded their commercial networks.16 Cantonese arrivals from San Francisco are credited with the establishment of the first Chinese theater—for wood puppetry—in Havana's Chinatown in 1873; some of those puppets would seem to have been carved in Cuba.17 In the summer of 1875, the first Cantonese opera company arrived in Havana, performing daily.18 In the 1870s, Cantonese opera was being presented in Cienfuegos (on the southern coast) and Sagua la Grande (on central Cuba's northern coast), with one record reporting an opera troupe of ninety-four members at the latter location.19 It seems probable that these were itinerant troupes traveling up and down through the country.Chinese official representatives took note. Qing consuls had been posted to Cuba since the Sino-Spanish Treaty of 1877, and not one but three Chinese diplomats mentioned the local presence of Cantonese opera. Zhang Yinhuan, envoy to Spain at the time, observed that performances in 1885 were pitched to the tastes of people from Guangdong.20 A few years later, Tan Qianchu, consul general in Havana (1889–1893), noted in his Miscellaneous Notes on Cuba (Guba zaji) that the colonial capital had “two Chinese theatre troupes. Although they are not very watchable (most of the actors have learnt their art locally), yet their stories of loyalty, filial piety, probity and virtue, of contentment, anger, sorrow and joy, can also stimulate the conscience, and cause the Chinese not to forget what China looks like.”21 Tan's view of theater as exerting a moral force in diaspora was commonplace at this time, but his account is significant also for suggesting that, more than just a touring concern, by the 1890s Cantonese opera was being taught to younger actors in Cuba. However, Yu Siyi, who succeeded Tan as consul general (1893–1896), recorded soon after his arrival that one of the Havana Cantonese theaters had folded as the local Chinese population decreased.22 This suggests that a first peak of Cantonese opera performance in Cuba occurred before the turn of the twentieth century.A fourth Qing diplomat, Liao Entao, won himself a unique place in Sino-Cuban dramatic history. Climbing the diplomatic ladder, he began in Matanzas in 1891, remaining in Cuba until 1907, by which consul A for his Cantonese Liao also three among that was in Cuba. This historical the of from the of Havana by Spanish during the on an that still in of Cuba's history. after and was in issues of New Liao became one of the first Chinese to a for dramatic there is little that the was to be not as the and the came a the recorded a population of Chinese people in Cuba. appear among the people were as as and one as a with troupes from and show that itinerant troupes until the performers after the United and Chinese immigration to Cuba until the 1920s or and a certain of Chinese not until the Second World in Havana and Cienfuegos were in and of that the performers were on the North American the Cantonese opera performance in Cuba seems to have greatly with by the of Some performers to China, to the United by the of touring Chinese local Chinese to the practice. Cuban performance of a cultural to have been the were taught that Cantonese in This local Chinese and to their even Chinese or was Some of these performers had in local arts so they some of their for xiqu The of the theater troupes were including of the and of the of some The that xiqu was in a of cultural not to Southeast Chinese cultural the time, ethnicity and Chinese are in Chinese performance studies of maritime Southeast Asia. has been the principal focus for into and of Chinese also an of Chinese cultures in Latin America and the In Cuba, cultural and is part of the national and the Chinese have been as an even of the Chinese is Cuban cultural including in the performing Cuban in the decades before World the of Cantonese of a Cuban and Spanish In his it is the in Havana Chinatown that the Chinese an in by the he this was not the Cuban Cantonese opera its Cantonese opera in New the art and his was by his at the way in the the the Cuban was a of Cantonese opera in his early in the in a newspaper article, he years a theater in Havana's A Chinese of for Chinese It was a of The rich of the la their The of the the more or with the were with In such the of the theater it to with a or dramatic troupe came to Cuba, by a the and who was a among the further art as as a as a which the and of the he that Chinese theater are for with the of a who had the of to the and the a of a this have been the Cantonese an on Cuban and dance were also into Cuban The as the Chinese is in Cuba, was into as for in Cuba, it is still It was of its for political and Chinese as la little Chinese has also in dance In Havana, the dance first became a part of in and since has into an between Chinese and more including the and and dance to the interest and of a younger A Chinese and Cuban on the and were until the Several were and Chinese even a Chinese is not in the Chinese and Chinese and was by and of Chinese have in Cuban and Cuban American including who recorded partly in and the Los a of and who their Chinese in the of their the years before the Cuban touring of xiqu was was a production for which actors from New York and with Chinese Cuban troupes seem to have performing by and for more than there would be little Chinese of the local Chinese population had Cuba in the of the Cuban but Chinese theater not of the of community and commercial itinerant after the Chinese theater in Cuba (and Latin became an in the of China cultural diplomacy during the years before the major of gradually Anglophone was Chinese to Peru had been the in Latin America during the nineteenth century. too, was by Cantonese who in exploitative as in the of Cuba, there seems to have been a of migrants in better who and Chinese theater and community and A Cantonese opera company first in in remaining there for a of this first company the expense in actors from California to Peru and the that they were with including The during this is with an in the and an of a arrival that work of these of the has been in cities of the United a who the in 1877, a account of the Cantonese narratives for on the of by to or the of the their attention to the As is the with to the of Chinese opera, are and he of being by with no In a newspaper that not more more more to and than the Chinese before the turn of the the Chinese theaters were to be with the and were a target of the and of for the general were on opera touring to Peru its the of the nineteenth and seem to have by has between and Cantonese opera performances at the principal theaters each of the years 1891, and it the genre in in that the performances in records from more than of the performances recorded in for that more than for which performances were The in (and the complete performances during the of and that the troupes had to work the North American summer Peru was no principal in Cuba, there is little of local presence of including in of xiqu in Peru that one can that they a of the as they in Southeast and North as in certain of San Francisco Chinese theaters, for time, Cantonese theater in Peru seems to have to increasingly The to the to in after the la was is suggesting that Chinese theater was to its from show the performances as part of the Chinese in for Chinese in during the last newspaper record dates from a little earlier than of diasporic Cantonese opera are few at of orchestras or other continuing Chinese into more recent a China (Chinese was in The of newspaper sources for the by further for research in the as use of that began to appear in the such as and New of which to the of as of on the Cold that beyond the of methodological has it increasingly that theater in which xiqu, and performance a were an in cultural this the as cultural diplomacy not with the the in Chinese theater to through of the United and the and expanded this use of in the had noted that a more of the than or it attention to the that the of and as a and of While such the of cultural diplomacy in the of the is at that it official diplomatic diplomacy a means for the to with populations not in the countries of and but also in Western Europe and the The a of the of global as The dramatic in diplomatic during the much to cultural America was not an for the in the early and it until a decade after the that its cultural diplomacy or attention to that in Europe, especially in at the in the way for the to engagements for its theater troupes in the as a of but also as a the in Latin In of the on the by In in as they would in Canada in newspaper credited the to in the Americas to the theater at this were through the Chinese in such as the and historian and the a major figure in to and had been by theater to for the performances of the Chinese on a to the in he was pitched a which he down to the more that would be presented with such in at the and were to China, an that in his becoming the for the American of and latter continuing on to the were part of a cultural from the Chinese of the with to Latin America as an of the a of the Western performances in who was also a of the Latin American would by from the earlier in the the first performance Latin American and and to This was likely the first that was presented in of these The up of and to recorded as people and more than a million were many cultural the troupe was to on Chinese theater before The touring performers were by political at their performances in and and local arts a to on their had been the for in Europe and for performances in the United States, to were in the and the newspaper were in of the in of the theatre company in the with years in that were in the of or to and of that Chinese theater be to the first he also with xiqu of with what the The of as opera and dance attention to the genre's language, with performers the of and in an of and on and was a for approaching and troupe interest of as the means for Chinese as well as the diplomatic attracted attention as a diplomatic including from the New York that the a cultural diplomacy it is to the the to local he had been from Latin to of members and local of This presented some had to be I had just arrived in the of the troupe I to the to a of I that this had been not and was that, it a to go was a of between the of China which it and who had diplomatic with the of China but not to in that Cold It was not the diplomats who were at the also from the which by his account had to from the of the before it with the the troupe from This official in from and opera including and The of and seems to have been for the performances were to The to the a was a diplomatic was even a performance for a social work by the the with performances in The were especially that this opera with a performance of Chinese people from and to the the the of and people from local they came to the theater in Some who had China even the actors the in or to the of actors the would these stories and were so and The local newspaper the and of the Chinese with and not to the and stage they and article on to the Chinese who in very Some even their on the stage a Chinese with a but and would it was a the troupe in the at its the the and one of the performers at had a of from other countries and in the from one to the and of the actors in diplomatic The was the as that in Europe in and New and in Canada was of for the who the took to with and to in of the their of global with the Latin American Chinese are of Latin such as is or of such as one of the few Latin American at the to have the even that since the first came from of the or even China are of Chinese also Latin America for Chinese as part of a general to what one has a through the of were in by an the of a of Southeast cultural diplomacy and later for the troupe in Latin America, too, seem to have been a with the of at the in noted in diplomatic for the was a for the still with the at this and on the after the of the the to the as in the political the show in the social with a of performers and the Chinese as well as and to the that the in to the to more performance troupes of its The was a to and America, and to to be the to Cuba for performances in cities that with local Chinese communities is one through line connecting these with earlier histories of Chinese performance in Latin performances took place at the of the Cold and the Chinese local Chinese to away from performances by as it that of cultural diplomacy would in be succeeded by of the local Chinese not such they the or they were of these Chinese to one Chinese one of their performances in in on the troupe with Chinese on one by a Chinese also that Chinese brought and to the after and their with to as they to a of their with his that Chinese China as their be his the for there were local Chinese the to as and with or was also not the troupe being of to on the of its to the China the had at the attempts to from the In after been that there would be there was a to the of political at of Chinese people have a for the people of Latin America, are the of and the The were taken to been by to do the the of the the performance had been was brought in for Nevertheless, the performance was to and the on as developments in Latin America into this In the troupe with representatives of Cuba's new to from to Havana in to on the first The well have this as on the of the China took place in Cuba, North America for the first In was by and there the troupe to an of more than on The for the Latin American in of in to million the first since before World Cuba became a focus of touring Chinese The was a the of its the performers in their at two in the and and one of the the stage to the the Chinese there were a million that in the of The the they had to a in Havana's on an stage as a with the in the and they for in the of the This of not a few Sino-Cuban had these and cultural diplomacy is to the in the global history of Chinese The in Cuba the in other countries to the such as the in with in and Canada However, as in Europe, and the among Chinese communities and local arts seems to have been people and were in a new of the was not so as the it but the of performers from an a for diplomacy and an for Latin American Cantonese theater in Latin America has been Recent research has the performers of this art form (e.g., the and their with global Cantonese and too, are more to to the Chinese in Cuban dance and research question to performance in Latin will that by the to the cultural Chinese performers were to be on Latin American on a greater of than While the from and networks to diplomatic by the stakes of the Cold can also to of these networks and itineraries as part of an history the the production of Cantonese opera in Latin America after World and in some but Chinese performance in other In the and early the Latin America with cultural a of and even in the troupe was as This was of a to diplomacy was a and the to Cantonese opera performance to for a more of Chinese presence in Latin America and of its place in a history of cultural recent of history for as even a at later developments in Cuba Sino-Cuban were at a point during the to by a art and with on an of Cantonese opera the of in Chinese including of the a of local Cantonese opera were by the la of Cuban and later by Havana Chinatown As and orchestras also Cuba. the China of City which two Havana in and the In the China of the cultural with the of Cuba for two performances in Recent Chinese cultural in Cuba, local or can be in part to the Cuban the last in with the and in which cultural is a central have also to more of In the and the in and Cantonese opera The from a performance by in Havana, been by the had been up the by as an was on the stage by the was or and years on the Cantonese opera the of the as a for Havana's Chinese to the sites of the of a community cultural to for cultural decades have also of Latin example, the of the puppets to in was as a local and a in to was as a decades of xiqu has been into such as at the of the Peru in Lima, which a Chinese opera and More recent of have in new diasporic theaters, such as to the there are other stories to and they can be by a wide in of and of Latin American of Chinese theater into cultural history more than of Cantonese opera of transnational or of cultural connecting the more North American and performance histories with parallel practices and in Latin America, can to genre, language, and political have America has been a in the history of Chinese performing just as Chinese theater and a in Latin cultural history.

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