Electrical Effects at the Paris Opera: Instrument Makers, the Arc Lamp, and Giacomo Meyerbeer’s 1849 <i>Le Prophète</i>

On April 16, 1849 Giacomo Meyerbeer’s long anticipated opera Le Prophète was premiered at the Paris Opéra. An elaborate and expensive production, its overall costs came to a staggering 136,681.30 francs, roughly a quarter of which was paid for by the state, leaving the Opéra (and its composer) to assume significant costs to mount the work.1 The quality of the production matched the price tag. Décors were commissioned from four different artists: Charles-Antoine Cambon (1802–1875) and Joseph Thierry (1812–1866) designed sets for the first and fourth acts, Charles Séchan (1803–1874) for the second and fifth, and Édouard Despléchin (1802–1871) for the third. 680 costumes were sewn, 250 of which were entirely new.2 The third act featured villagers appearing to skate on ice, thanks to 1,420 specially built roller skates designed by Louis Legrand, whose own skating at the Place de la Concorde had likely inspired Meyerbeer. To facilitate the dances designed for these skates, the Opéra commissioned a new, pebbled flooring, called “kamptulicon.”3 The fourth act and its coronation scene called for a procession of an eighteen-piece brass band, including saxhorns and a children’s choir accompanied by two pipe organs.4 This truly was a grand opera, packed with spectacle from every possible angle. Overall, the production was a bold gamble. Ticket sales lagged significantly at the Opéra during the 1848 season, due in no small part to the economic crisis the country faced following the fall of the July Monarchy.5 The Opéra’s administration needed to draw audiences back in large numbers to break even. Luckily, Le Prophète did just this. On the second night of sales, the Opéra made a record-breaking 9,022.75 francs in a single evening.6 With some fluctuations due to cholera, heat, elections, and political unrest, profits remained strong until the production’s close on July 8, 1849.7 A critic for Le Crédit chortled that Le Prophète was bringing the institution “all the gold in California.”8 Other critics praised the Opéra’s administration for surviving the turbulent political turnover of 1848 and persevering in such a way as to be able to mount the opera successfully.9 Among the innovative production elements that made this opera so unique and attractive to audiences was the first use of electric light on the Opéra’s stage. At the close of the third act, through an experimental prototype based upon the design of scientist Léon Foucault (1819–1868), audiences were presented with a sunrise: not a painted sunrise, but one of powerful and intense luminosity generated by the arc lamp.10 In scale, intensity, and verisimilitude, nothing in stage lighting previously was said to compare. In his review of the opera, Théophile Gautier (1811–1872) described a “piercing sun … flooding the theatre with a light so bright that the actors cast shadows, which is unknown on a stage.”11 The electric arc lamp was used again at the end of the fifth act to create the illusion of a raging fire, so realistic it made audience members frantically scan the room for exits, fearing an actual fire was burning—a constant threat for theatergoers during this period.12 Together with the scenic designs, these effects were powerful. Praising the set materials overall, Gautier wrote: “Perhaps never before has the art of stage design been taken further.”13 Here, we build on the extensive and significant work of Gabriela Cruz, who traced the arrival of gaslight at the Opéra in 1822 and its aesthetic and artistic consequences in the decades that followed.14 Indeed, while lighting effects were not new and were even part of Meyerbeer’s previous repertoire (albeit with gas-powered devices), the arc lamp, and the bright sun and striking fire it produced, marked an important moment for science and scientific instruments at the Opéra. The arc lamp’s implementation at the Opéra centers on a group of scientists, engineers, instrument makers, and technicians all of whom were necessary for the operation and maintenance of the arc lamp itself, thus contributing to the ever-growing importance of special effects and artistic production in nineteenth-century French opera. In our previous work, we have studied connections between medicine, physiology, and opera, including treatments for vocal maladies and connections between the history of speech therapy and Symbolist aesthetics.15 Here we shift our attention away from health and medicine to the physical sciences, in particular to the developing fields of optics and electricity during this period, exploring connections between opera and the scientists and instrument makers who experimented with the potential of portable electrical light. As David Trippett and Benjamin Walton have pointed out, nineteenth-century European intellectual and artistic scenes were deeply interconnected. Not only did scientists attend performances; they were also interested in optics, acoustics, and physiology, among other sciences, in ways that obviously cut across both arts and science. Indeed, Trippett and Walton argue for “a more complex reciprocity, in which operatic production and performance is transformed and reframed by its contact with science, broadly conceived.”16 We apply this viewpoint to the world of electrically powered lighting effects to explore their emergence on stage in Le Prophète. We focus especially on the use of the electric arc lamp in stage lighting between 1849 and 1855 as an element of the Opéra’s expansion of its production techniques and a way of amplifying and capitalizing on audience appetites for spectacle. We travel behind the curtain to explore the world of scientists, engineers, technicians, and instrument makers who experimented with technological prototypes that they then contracted out to the Opéra. We draw a picture of a community of scientists and popularizers of science for whom the prestigious stage of the rue Le Peletier was a consistent employer for short-term projects, offering them a space to experiment, innovate, and display their workmanship. We then consider the use of the arc lamp and the critical reception of its lighting effects, particularly the sun in act 3 of Le Prophète, contextualizing the audience’s experience of this visual effect. Finally, we discuss administrative changes that came with the increasing complexity of operating electrical lighting on stage and the lasting impact that this new technology had on the Opéra, both structurally and administratively. Overall, we see the arc lamp’s use in Le Prophète as marking an important moment for special effects at the Opéra. With an increase in effect possibilities came a greater dependence on on-site, trained staff who could operate the often-temperamental prototypes, fix them they and as This the Opéra a with members of the scientific community as it the arc lamp in its their with the Opéra’s production these scientists and instrument makers technology that transformed of whose before and whose could and thus and effect in new On a the of the arc lamp at the Opéra to away from a focus on a single the the and to explore the ways in which the and of lighting effects were the work of a of scientists, technicians, and the to lighting effects to Le Prophète, we argue that the between production in all its and opera audience new ways for the of operatic in the one science and art during a of and and the Opéra on the science of light as a of spectacle. before electricity and the arc lamp, stage lighting was an part of the nineteenth-century opera and effects with lighting had with previous of powered by had been used to light actors and scenes as as to and create effects for in and and new with them increasing possibilities to create to across the of the audiences came to more realistic stage effects, including of and of and of lighting had been with and and electricity new possibilities to create and stage lighting effects, particularly for such as used for opera the first of the and new lighting that were first on stage and did not have the lighting that electricity but it the stage design and actors greater With also came and for the of of the stage. for new and could and following the of these techniques the audience’s and In and lighting with and in the The first French by was the in The Opéra it from the rue to the Le also in At the its then lighting by the whose were built close to the Opéra, on rue On designed that could be and to create a large gas-powered the of the a gas-powered the of lighting the space were on even during and were the first to lighting at the Opéra for the set of in The production was a and the use of lighting in other and opera With the had remained Giacomo Meyerbeer’s opera audiences by the the during a that also The Opéra’s then that stage lighting and were some of the important during his in with a to the Opéra’s paid particular attention to scenic design and costumes and greater by the use of lighting on and behind the stage. In lighting was used to create and effects, audiences in the impact by the as a of the and his with a experience with its importance in scenic and its part in the of his Le Prophète see In his attention to the importance of the technicians operating behind the scenes during this period, including in of lighting and A history of the Opéra’s lighting special effects more of the in of these effects during this is to We that was marked by an overall in costs through and as as the of and At the the importance of scenic design and special With a large stage and so and “a of to operate the the and made in scenic scenic and his while overall and were during this period, more on and costumes and their on with some among whom with the Opéra of We thus have a as to lighting and other effects were behind the particularly by following at the Opéra during in of the on costumes for Le as a for the Opéra and The in this likely have to a of science a with some scientific were with the of illusion and visual not the effects that could be in and were with scientific that and other and to and create a of In the of opera more to have been and of as necessary for these of his at the Opéra between and to actors and and as a and of of and scenic The first in the that made francs to materials and other physical elements necessary for special effects to the of In to the Opéra for the likely for effects, a of illusion in of the not to have been in such and other effects with and for the Opéra during the the Opéra with a of for and that and that light in in the a of and In the did some work on the and two to the Opéra for the expensive francs from to the of his paid for to electrical lighting was in the and was paid by the of costumes the was for the operation of a new for the an arc lamp based on the prototype designed by scientist Léon Foucault is for his but it was a of his arc lamp, built by that used in the third act of Le Prophète to such design built on technology by to and an electric between two of The from a called a lamp in two ways from prototype in which their of significant with Foucault also a but and that the of As the and to the and them back to the in a bright electric With this lamp could some of the on the during its the arc lamp used at the of Le Prophète was and roughly one by and that the with an and electric the electrically generated of light and it a a large the audience an the at the end of act The was by the lamp and its on a behind the the (and its to lamp from The and of Léon The the At some before the the Opéra commissioned a more that designed by Foucault from his for Le Prophète in the of the Foucault was on and to at the of it is and Foucault ways with the Opéra the as Le Foucault in a with the arc lamp To his intellectual Foucault the to his lamp as and his was the a on and an it was of this for other Foucault to have his work with the Opéra was thus who trained for and for the operation two before the first the Opéra to to the de in April the arc lamp for before the of Le Prophète on April and and was the for all from April until every and this the Opéra including and from to the as was a of the and likely not as in the Opéra’s that the to the to critical this production marked an important moment in the of French opera and appetites for spectacle. of Le Prophète premiered at the Opéra on April 16, on the of of by it also featured as and as his The opera from who called it the of As has in work on the reception of Meyerbeer’s more critical were Le Prophète in April such as Le and Le a of on the opera, one for of its This a significant in the that audiences to the on for his vocal and his unique and also on the political importance of the opera so the some Le was a to the of French political in the by a before the opera with it lasting no in April 1849 first the As has Le Prophète was in its that some it as a of the importance of and the for while the as “a for the of also of the set design and wrote: and the The of the third act is a that to all the opera of to praised from the of the costumes to the by the sets that made the audience as they were in and among the of the is some critics on the of the third the from the new to the of the technicians these As we have Gautier was particularly by the of the sun and the that the actors cast on stage. also that the light of the arc lamp to a of upon such as an for Le called the effect of the sun while that the illusion called for and on April the second for de of the large of and for the production, especially at the end of the third and a to the and fire effects A the a third that the end of the third act of and the overall to A before the that effect of the is one of the and in thanks to the electric we a that we could not at and whose light was to the back of the away from the for that the cast light all the way to the Opéra’s a review in Le on the of the moment the sun “a sunrise, with its own a that no and whose out of the the of the of the critic of realistic the sun of the third act its light the of the This realistic illusion by the arc lamp was a moment for French opera production effects, both scientific and increasing the impact of Meyerbeer’s In Le Prophète and its act 3 be as a of light as its the audience and then out of 3 as the is and the they have to the of on the of they have their with As light the scene and on the their The of the act the his by is the light a small a gas-powered The a an to the fire the lamp, it to and the of the who has This of the of which on a small the of the act, not only the to but also the Opéra’s with the lamp, in to the that the third The of Le Prophète, before the could not have for the of the arc The stage the in the the of the third act has of a sunrise, they for a sun to a is this the that the and the the sun the and the of which is them with his to be in the across the This effect was to be that could have been with The of the sun have a In the arc lamp the for the to be could increase a visual to the called for in the the of at the end of this scene as “a of a The that the and of the arc lamp’s use were and to this of was an was out across the of the increasing the the both and The night is the is the first to out to the of to his and his to to to a in the of The of this between four and the including brass and is a between a and a is by his with increasing This for with and his on of as all members of the to is who and the through a the stage for to the and for to on the The stage for this of the opera and which to and The actors the of the stage in ways that with the to on The its of to the and this with of With the of the of and of the is to the in their The stage the light as in and the The at this and is through in the increasing The and just as the The scene with a small by his and The light upon as the out a to this Le Prophète, act from the the stage arc lamp with from and production Le Prophète, act The effect at Le Prophète, act in the to the of the arc lamp, Le an part of the of the opera, a powerful through its of a just as the that their of is their is no that audience members were by this as the sun were and on display to the This was a moment of scientific and artistic that the impact of the unrest, the of and the of one could also the illusion of the sun as the illusion of the were by the (and of The of the could not be upon in just as the light of the arc lamp was and to electrical as part of a work that both and its The of such elements was not on Among other the critic of Le a moment to the scientific of the sunrise: all the of the was the that this Not one of these in the theatre until but a that all and this with the of electric this new that the physical have just and whose that of the this the effect was more it a of science. This moment both and on the the to be in the of art and science by French that the Opéra to its use of this new, effect. its in Le Prophète, the arc lamp was in other in 1849 used the to create de in new In a review of the production Gautier again with on the effects of the arc electric light the sets an of the illusion is it is a a it could be said that the of the opera away to for all of the production following the on arc lamp for the Le Prophète was again on was the for both opera and until in and Le Prophète on his work with the arc lamp the two with both a of Le Prophète and new opera Le in the and and of Le called for of which not only to the arc lamp, but also to with including brass made especially for this opera. April and entirely with Le and the arc Le Prophète was and his was between Le and Le the new the following the Opéra called for the arc lamp to be used in different Le and Le Prophète were while were for a of was the arc lamp for special for Louis In to these operatic a of and a new production of also called for and the use of the arc and was with and not only his with the arc lamp, but also his that in two large to the Opéra, for and physical all necessary for the arc In francs to the and a but his for to the arc lamp no in the is was paid for during these two is as for the Opéra in 1855 of the of the de in other of the that for the arc lamp his intense In we that had with the to and even the Opéra. in 1849 was as the contact for the arc lamp in and Meyerbeer’s of Le this production in in was contracted in July at the of that have the lamp, and all necessary build and a arc lamp production on Overall, that the arc lamp a for the Opéra, but that it also and from these to the Opéra’s and increasing costs for the arc lamp and the to the from Foucault to have build for On before Le Prophète was set to be for the Opéra, to the administration that the arc lamp, which by that had the of instrument had been and In the production a and to the that the had been as and of use of the had so for that the to new to operate them as as an to the electric arc The administration to these and was to work the effects on April the night of Le With electrical special effects to have as to The Opéra then these with the and this is the materials to work with the Opéra be in the in 1855 marked the at which electrical special effects from a to a part of was an and one of the instrument makers of the At the of was to the instrument in also his In Paris at rue de to in the fields of optics, and even the attention of at the The Opéra’s to work with particular his own work on the arc lamp, upon design by a that the light and made the more This design as the the and to the arc lamp and to in with the Opéra to have been inspired by and new effects, including a effect for the of in remained on staff for the new in it a space for his on the of the for the of electric la was a room with long with on which the to of the stage of electrical to all of lighting effects for the the Opéra with by the the one of the first in Paris to be the of the Le Peletier in the to the of the the Paris Opéra to be a of lighting bringing with it possibilities and for the arc lamp’s use at the Paris Opéra from to a powerful of a science and art in but to on Foucault as and as but the at the Opéra and in thanks to of and scientists who and entirely Foucault was the of this particular of arc lamp, the of its at the Opéra a of scientists and instrument makers other and the as as operating behind the In the scientific these their at the Opéra is that the institution as an important of science and scientific during this In among the actors of this had in close to one was on the close to the Le while instrument makers had one on the including the rue and rue de is the of this technology was in ways by administrative and The Opéra the of Le Prophète and paid for the use of the arc lamp in an increasing of its The at which the was and the at which new techniques were was no in with audience and to to see this spectacle. only for the Opéra to create a to lighting and special effects, it out of the was and it Indeed, the Opéra’s be for the administrative needed to the arc lamp and for for the of The for these and the between lighting and the of and in the transformed opera was presented on who for the Opéra, and even the of the physical itself, as by the to in the With its Le Prophète the potential of electricity to create a realistic and at the spectacle. the arc lamp and its on this work an experimental technology the Opéra for its audience to The was a in which science and stage in from the world of science to that of and their work were on stage in the to create and other effects for a that visual to be part of the The of Le Prophète be a of scientific in which scientists, engineers, technicians, instrument makers, and popularizers of science behind the stage to create new that upon of This new way of light the of light to and in ways entirely and The of science and opera in the Opéra’s 1849 production of Le Prophète significantly and operatic performance and French is of the of and as as of at the of is the of and the of a and the A of and with of of the is on second de of the with is of the of and of at is the of the and to and in and A of and in In work, the history of nineteenth-century science in its to and has the in and in the French and the emergence and of electricity as a technology in Paris during the second of the is a and of the in the of the and at the of on for and and The to and for their work as on this A special thanks to and for their with of this were by an from the and of A of this was presented at the of the in in The to for their as as by the of this

Récupéré en direct depuis OpenAlex et désinversé. Les résumés ne sont pas conservés dans cette base de données : les index inversés représentent 8,6 Go des 9,3 Go de texte de la base, et le serveur dispose de 13 Go libres.