Curriculum Design

General Barrow, R., Common Sense and the Curriculum, Allen and Unwin, 1976 Argues for a common curriculum justified in terms of utilitarianism. Provides critical comments on the curriculum theories of Hirst, Bantock, Neil, Goodman and White. Produces his own positive theory and details a practical programme to implement it. Broudy, H. et al., Democracy and Excellence in American Secondary Education, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1964 A very sound, coherently argued position in relation to curriculum design. The principles and arguments are of wide applicability, not merely to secondary education. The early chapters are particularly useful. Bruner, J., The Process of Education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1960 A clear, beautifully written account which summarizes Bruner’s early views on the curriculum (especially his notions of ‘structure’ and ‘the spiral curriculum’). It has proved very influential and, unlike many American texts, is short and compact. Dearden, R., ‘Balance and coherence: some curricular principles in recent reports’, Cambridge Journal of Education, 11:2, 1981, pp. 107-118 An interesting, clearly written paper which considers the merits of ‘balance’ and ‘coherence’ as curricular principles. Gets behind the rhetoric of recent reports. Analyzes the two concepts and their presuppositions. Eisner, E. and Vallance E. (Eds.), Conflicting Conceptions of Curriculum, McCutcheon, Berkeley, 1974 A collection illustrating five different orientations to curriculum, as evidenced in the United States. The authors describe these clearly and succinctly in their introduction and apply them to ‘Man: A Course of Study’ in their concluding chapter. The papers are of uneven quality and difficulty; the ones by Bereiter and Schwab are particularly interesting. Hirst, P., Knowledge and the Curriculum, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974 A collection of Hirst’s papers raising crucial questions about the nature of knowledge. The book details Hirst’s views (and defence) of forms of knowledge and their implications for curriculum planning. Particularly useful papers on philosophy and curriculum planning, on the nature and structure of curriculum objectives and on curriculum integration. Inglis, F., Ideology and the Curriculum: the value assumptions of system builders’, J. Curriculum Studies, 6:1, May 1974, pp. 3-14 A critique of technical, consensual curriculum planning as exemplified by Merritt, Hirst and Peters, and Bruner. Argues that such thinking avoids discussion of the moral ends of education and of conflicts inherent in the human condition. King, A. and Brownell, J., The Curriculum and the Disciplines of Knowledge, Wiley, New York, 1966 Mainly known for its coherent and thoughtful justification of basing the curriculum on making an ‘Intellectual Man’ rather than a ‘Political’, ‘Religious’, ‘Social’ or ‘Economic’ man. By defending the curricular status quo it helps show the latter’s present assumptions more clearly. Parker, J. and Rubin., L., Process as Content, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1966 A carefully worked out argument for the selection of content in terms of the cognitive processes to be revealed. A useful model provided of three kinds of operations in a process-centred curriculum: intake operations (e.g. listening, listing), manipulative operations (e.g. comparing, verifying) and applicative operations (e.g. solving). Examples given in English, geography, mathematics, physics and social studies. Phenix, P., Realms of Meaning, McGraw Hill, New York, 1964 Phenix develops a philosophy of the curriculum based on the notion that human beings are essentially creatures who have the power to create and express meanings. He analyzes six ‘realms of meaning’ and draws out the significance of this analysis for curriculum design. For criticism of his views see a paper in Hirst (128). Pratt, D., Curriculum: Design and Development, Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, New York, 1980 A Canadian text for undergraduate and graduate students. Details the curricular decisions involved in planning, starting with the consideration of significant human needs and ending with the implementation of curricula in classrooms. Most chapters usefully begin with a list of the principles and concepts to be covered. A variety of amusing and/or insightful aphorisms lighten the text. A book to be used very selectively, not worked through cover to cover. Pring, R., Knowledge and Schooling, Open Books, 1976 Examines several approaches to the place of knowledge in the curriculum: the philosophical arguments for forms of knowledge; the sociology of knowledge (a very useful critique), the claims for an interest-based curriculum; the different senses of curriculum integration; and Pring’s own analysis of ‘commonsense knowledge’. A well-written and valuable synthesis, though not for the absolute beginner in the field. Rowntree, D., Educational Technology in Curriculum Development (second edition) Harper and Row, 1982 Presents educational technology as a rational, problem solving approach to education, a way of thinking sceptically and systematically about learning and teaching. Considers (i) objectives, (ii) content, sequence and strategy, (iii) modes and media, (iv) evaluation and improvement, (v) the role of educational technology. Schools Council, The Practical Curriculum, Working Paper 70, Methuen, 1981 An attempt to distil, for practising teachers, principles for the planning, monitoring and assessment of the school curriculum. Loosely put together and fails to provide a body of defensible curriculum principles. Nevertheless, some useful pragmatic suggestions are hidden away within the text. Written by a committee and it shows! Skilbeck, M., ‘Core curriculum — a fresh approach’, Primary Education Review, 12, 1981, pp. 15-18 A brief but cogent critique of recent moves by the DES to establish a national framework for the curriculum. Argues the need for a framework but one based on cultural mapping (see 83). Sockett, H., ‘Curriculum planning: taking a means to an end’, in Peters, R. (Ed.), The Philosophy of Education, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1973, pp. 150-160 A difficult paper which criticizes the behavioural objectives model of curriculum planning as based on a very restricted conception of means-ends connections. Five such connections are discussed in place of the one stressed by advocates of curriculum planning by behavioural objectives. Sockett, H., Approaches to Curriculum Planning I,E. 203, Curriculum Design and Development, unit 16, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1976 After hurriedly considering the views of Mill, Oakshott and Dewey on rational activity, he summarizes the main features of so-called ‘rational’ curriculum planning involving the specification of behavioural objectives and then provides a critique of this. Sockett, H., Approaches to Curriculum Planning 2, E. 203, Curriculum Design and Development, unit 17, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1976 Considers amendments to the rational planning model (139) by examining in detail the approach of Science 5-13 to curriculum design. Outlines all too briefly alternative planning models. Fails to draw out many practical principles for teachers attempting to design their own curricula. Sockett, H., Designing the Curriculum, Open Books, 1976 A very good introduction to the problems and possibilities of curriculum design. Provides a well-argued critique of ‘rational’ curriculum planning through objectives. Suggests the notion of designing the structure of the curriculum as it is and making piecemeal improvements in the light of this design. Such improvements might be effected by giving attention to objectives or content or procedural principles or teaching methods. Stenhouse, L., An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, Heinemann, 1975 Of particular relevance to curriculum design are the chapters on behavioural objectives and curriculum development, on a critique of behavioural objectives and on the ‘process’ model Tyler, R., Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1949 In what is now a classic text Tyler outlines his ‘rational’ planning model for curriculum design. Sections deal with ways of formulating, organizing and evaluating the educational objectives that have been chosen for the curriculum. Whitfield, R. (Ed.), Disciplines of the Curriculum, McGraw Hill, 1971 A collection of papers, from a variety of contributors, on the nature of school subjects, which the editor attempts to synthesize to produce a ‘blueprint’ for the 9-16 curriculum. Interesting to re-examine this attempt a decade or so on. Objectives-based designs, critiques and alternatives Atkin, M., ‘Behavioural objectives in curriculum design: a cautionary note’, The Science Teacher, 35, 1968, pp. 27-30 A short, early and influential critique. Doubts whether the multitude of educational objectives can readily be identified. Argues that objectives may hinder innovation and teacher spontaneity. Stresses that the worth-whileness of goals is independent of their measurability. Bloom, B. et al., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain, Longmans, 1973 A paperback edition of Bloom’s influential book which attempts to classify educational objectives in terms of the behaviour of the learner. His learning hierarchy begins with simple operations and proceeds to complex levels of understanding in the cognitive area. Has come in for considerable criticism from philosophers (see 153 and 160). More a work of reference than a book to be read from cover to cover. Blyth, W. et al., Place, Time and Society 8-13: Curriculum Planning in History, Geography and Social Science, Collins/ ESL, Glasgow/Bristol, 1976 An interesting variant on ‘hard-line’ ‘rational’ curriculum planning. Details an approach to planning involving the selection of key concepts (e.g. values, communication) and the use of objectives. A clear, readable, non-technical exposition which provides detailed examples of the design process advocated. Davies, I., The Management of Learning, McGraw-Hill, 1971 Applies management concepts to educational technology in general and to teaching and training in particular. Has four sections: ‘Planning’, ‘Organising’, ‘Leading’ and ‘Controlling’. Regards teachers as managers of learning resources, charged with the role of deciding between alternative teaching and learning strategies. Described by one reviewer as ‘A book about training, by a trainer, for trainers’. With its concern for task analysis, learning objectives and teaching strategies and tactics, the book is more ‘hard-nosed’ and behaviouristic than the author’s later book (149). Davies, I., Objectives in Curriculum Design, McGraw-Hill, 1976 Provides a rationale for thinking about, and working with, objectives. The author argues that objectives are not a panacea, but are useful tools, more helpful in some situations than others. Section One discusses the assumptions underlying objectives, arguments for and against using them and a review of research findings. Section Two discusses how objectives can be used and organised. Presents objectives ‘with a human face’. Eisner, E., ‘Educational objectives: help or hindrance?’, School Review, 75, 1967, pp. 250-260 A seminal article which challenges the assumption that objectives have to be stated clearly, unambiguously and specifically in terms of pupils’ behaviour or performance. Drawing on his experience of curriculum work in the visual arts he produces four major criticisms. In summary he suggests that ‘in large measure the construction of curriculums and the judgement of their consequences are artful tasks’. Eisner, E., ‘Instructional and expressive educational objectives’ in Popham, W. (Ed.), Instructional Objectives, AERA, Monograph 3, Rand McNally, Chicago, 1969 pp. 1-18 After outlining three dominant metaphors in American education (‘industrial’, ‘behavioural’ and ‘biological’) he distinguishes ‘instructional objectives’ specifying terminal pupil behaviour and ‘expressive objectives’ which identify learning situations but do not specify what children are to learn from these. Eisner, E., ‘Emerging models for educational evaluation’, School Review, 80, 1972, pp. 573-90 Another clear, well-written piece outlining Eisner’s developing thoughts on evaluation. In addition to ‘instructional’ and ‘expressive objectives’ he suggests a third type which describes problematic situations to which there are a variety of solutions meeting specified criteria, but leaves the actual resolution of these situations to pupil initiative. (See 10, 150 and 151.) Gribble, J., ‘Pandora’s Box: the affective domain of educational objectives’, J. Curriculum Studies 2:1, May 1970, pp. 11-24 A critique of Bloom and Krathwohl’s taxonomies (146 and 155). Raises questions of whether (a) an educational taxonomy can be neutral and (b) the cognitive and affective domains can valuably be separated. Högben, D., ‘The behavioural objectives approach: some problems and some dangers’, J. Curriculum Studies, 4:1, 1972, pp. 42-50 Points out the dangers of too exclusive a concentration on objectives stated in highly specific behavioural terms. Has useful suggestions for teachers and curriculum workers interested in objectives. Very clear and readable. Krathwohl, D., Bloom, B., et al., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 2: Affective Domain, Longmans, 1973 See Bloom (146). Attempts classification of affective objectives in terms of a hierarchy from ‘receiving’ through ‘responding’, ‘valuing’, ‘organization’ to ‘characterization by a value or value-complex’. Has come in for severe philosophical criticism (e.g. 153 and 160), but influential nevertheless. Difficult reading. MacDonald-ross, M., ‘Behavioural objectives: a critical review’ in Golby, M. et al (15), pp. 355-386 Details a large number of difficulties inherent in the use of behavioural objectives and contends that the, claims made for such objectives are weakened or negated by these criticisms. An impressive critique. Mager, R., Preparing Instructional Objectives, Feanon, Palo Alto, 1962 A short concise guide to preparing behavioural objectives. In a way too readable, gives the reader too simplistic a view of what objectives’ prespecification involves. Nevertheless states the case in a powerful, but entertaining, way. Popham, W., ‘Objectives ‘72’, inRusiN, (Ed.), (22), pp. 605613 A foremost advocate of planning by instructional objectives, he reviews the objectives controversy in the United States. Accepts there have been abuses of objectives-based planning but still supports the basic approach. Argues that attempts to clarify and assess the more profound goals of education are worth making, and contends that ‘most educational goals can be operationalized’. Pratt, D., ‘Humanistic goals and behavioural objectives: towards a synthesis’ J. Curriculum, Studies, 8:1, May 1976, pp. 15-26 A valuable attempt at creating a synthesis from humanistic and behavioural approaches to curriculum design. Argues that their thinking is much closer than either group believes, that both have contributions to make to discussion of goals and that equally both have deficiencies. Pring, R., ‘Bloom’s taxonomy: a philosophical critique (2)’, Cambridge J. Ed., 1:2, Easter 1971, pp. 83-91 Criticizes Bloom’s taxonomy (146 and 155) for not being based on epistemological analysis. Argues that the taxonomy distorts by separating the cognitive and affective domains, and by differentiating knowledge from intellectual abilities. Raths, J., ‘Teaching without specific objectives’, Educational Leadership, 28:7, 1971, pp. 714-720 Criticizes teaching for objectives as dull and stultifying but accepts that some such teaching is necessary. As an alternative to selecting activities in the light of pre-specified objectives, he provides twelve criteria ‘for identifying activities that seem to have some inherent worth’. Reynolds, J. and Skilbeck, M., Culture and the Classroom, Open Books, 1976 See chapter five for an outline of a ‘situational’ model for curriculum planning involving five stages. Such a model can usefully encompass both ‘objectives-based’ and ‘process’ approaches to planning. (See also 9) Sockett, H., ‘Behavioural objectives’, London Ednl. R., 2:3, Autumn 1973, pp. 38-45 A brief but difficult philosophical critique of behavioural objectives. Discusses the ‘ambiguities and absurdities’ of operationalism, the restrictions of methodological behaviourism and the implications of a verification theory of meaning, all of which underlie approaches to curriculum planning using behavioural objectives. Stenhouse, L., et al., The Humanities Curriculum Project: An Introduction, Heinemann, 1970 A handbook for teachers outlining the rationale of the Humanities Curriculum Project and giving principles of procedure for teachers to adopt in handling controversial issues with adolescents. A practical exemplification of Stenhouse’s process model (see also 12). model. Outlines a form or principles model to curriculum planning which begins with the specification of content, not objectives. Views rational curriculum planning not in Tylerian terms (143) but as the exercise of cautious judgment in making decisions to achieve a coordinated curriculum in the presence of so many variables and uncertainties. Psychology and Curriculum Design Ausubel, D. et al., Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View, (second edition), Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1978 Focusses on what Ausubel terms meaningful ‘reception’ and ‘discovery’ learning. The cognitive, affective and social factors influencing meaningful verbal learning are examined. Its critique of Bruner’s views on discovery learning are particularly interesting (and hard-hitting!). Bruner, J., Towards a Theory of Instruction, Belknap Press, Cambridge, 1966 A collection of papers, all readable and valuable. Paper 3 (‘Notes on a theory of instruction’) and paper 4 (Man: a course of study) are particularly valuable, the first as an exposition of the principles underlying Bruner’s thinking on the curriculum and the second as an embodiment of these principles in a curriculum project. See also Bruner (125) Donaldson, M., Children’s Minds, Fontana, 1978 Argues that largely because of the influence of Piaget’s work we have the rational of who can complex given a and a that to the activities the school curriculum do not provide such a or A. (Ed.), Cognitive Development in the School University Press, A collection of with research in cognitive and the relevance of this research to educational is particularly as it with the implications of cognitive for social and the course and the learning of Development in the School E. Cognitive Development, 3, Open University Press, Milton Keynes, with the of on a wide of in the by reference to social and it too how curricula can be to account of to be read in with the papers in the reader by R., The of Learning, edition) Rinehart and Winston, New York, third very different in from the first discusses the nature and of learning five of intellectual cognitive verbal and The two chapters apply principles and concepts to the design and of of and J., Development and the Curriculum, E. 203, Curriculum Design and Development, unit Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1976 A of the of to curriculum with the more of and Bruner than with the of and Has a useful on of A. and Wiley, D., ‘The process in a Curriculum 6:1, 1976, pp. An influential model of the process based on the that ‘the of education the of in and In it argues that ‘The of actual learning on a particular instructional is the of the on that D., theory of some J. Curriculum Studies, pp. An interesting, well-argued critique.

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