Remedies for Unlawful Collective Action in France, Belgium, Italy and Spain
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This article provides a comparative analysis of France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain demonstrating that in each of these countries the notion of unlawful strikes is fairly restricted. Whether considered from the point of view of the definition, the action taken, or its objectives, the probability of a strike being declared unlawful is not high, either due to the absence of detailed legislative rules, as in the case of France, Belgium, and Italy, or because of a fairly permissive constitutional interpretation of the existing rules, as in the case of Spain. As a result, if we turn our attention to the 'remedial' aspect of the four national systems under examination, we find a widespread perception according to which unlawful strikes do not play a key role in the overall scenario of collective action. More specifically, even though the principle that any tort must have its remedy is certainly not disputed in the countries concerned, it remains evident that, unlike what has happened in the Swedish follow-up to Laval, civil liability for damages does not play a key role in the current debate.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.006 | 0.013 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.005 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.007 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Research integrity | 0.004 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".