A Laboratory Investigation of the Effects of Saturated Steam Properties on the Interfacial Tension of Heavy-Oil/Steam System Using Pendant Drop Method
Bibliographic record
Abstract
For about a century, steam injection has been widely used as the most popular thermal recovery method for heavy-oil in sandstone reservoirs. In order to achieve higher recovery efficiency, which corresponds to the lowest possible value of residual oil saturation and economic success of steam injection projects, an accurate laboratory measurement of the interfacial tension between steam and heavy-oil is essential. However, laboratory investigation and visualization of the effects of steam injection on the interfacial tension between heavy-oil and steam as a function of saturation temperature and pressure is not well documented in the literature. The objective of this study is to investigate the influences of the two main factors which affect the interfacial tension of heavy-oil and steam namely saturation pressure and temperature. An optical cell, which was fitted with a goniometer system and a procedure to generate steam for the measurement of interfacial tension have been used. The difference between the density of heavy-oil and steam, which was used for pendant drop measurements, was calculated at specific temperature and pressure conditions using Katz’s method. Meanwhile, the density of steam was obtained from an international steam table. The interfacial tension of heavy-oil/steam was measured in small intervals, ranging from 115 to 181 Celsius and 25 to 150 pounds per square inch. The results show that the interfacial tension decreases when the saturation temperature and pressure increases. This finding might be useful as an important reference for understanding and visualization the mechanism of interfacial tension during steam injection.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".