Early studies of binocular and stereoscopic vision<sup>1</sup>
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract The revolution in binocular vision (in the 1830s) was occasioned by Wheatstone's invention and application of the stereoscope to demonstrate depth from retinal disparity. The stereoscope, perhaps more than any other instrument, ushered in the era of experimentation to vision. It fulfilled the scientific desire to examine binocular vision by observation and experiment. The stereoscope is a simple optical device that presents slightly different figures to each eye. If these figures have appropriate horizontal displacements or disparities then depth is seen. Wheatstone achieved for space perception what Newton had for color vision: the phenomena could be removed from their object base. Newton's decomposition of white light into its spectral components removed the perception of color from the colored objects that naturally conveyed it. Wheatstone's decomposition of stereoscopic depth into its disparate projections to each eye removed the perception of depth from the solid objects that naturally conveyed it. Color and depth could be examined in the laboratory, and the methods of the natural sciences could be applied to their investigation.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.008 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".