Anglo-Italian Armament Trade Competition in Iraq: The Italian Air Force Mission to Iraq, 1937–40

Abstract This article seeks to shed light on a largely neglected episode in the history of Anglo-Italian imperial competition in the Middle East. Although reference has often been made to the military and commercial aspects of the Italian Air Force Mission to Iraq, very little research has been conducted to uncover the political and strategic consequences of this in the context of Anglo-Italian imperial competition. The Air Force Mission to Iraq was an important aspect of the imperial policy pursued by the Fascist regime, the ultimate goal of which was to supplant British influence in the region. Yet, although the Italian government succeeded in exploiting Arab resentment towards British policies and asserted the position of its own aeronautical industry in a market tightly controlled by Britain, the ambitious programme ultimately failed because Iraq was not prepared to enter into direct conflict with His Majesty's Government. The final upshot is a delineation not only of the long-term clash of interests that separated Britain and Italy in the Middle East, but also the strengths and limits of Fascist Italy's imperial policies in the region. Notes Bullard, Britain and the Middle East, 28–65; Clayton, An Arabian Diary, 3–4; Monroe, Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 11; Knox, ‘Il fascismo e la politica estera italiana’, 296–99; Mallett, The Italian Navy, 191. On foreign missions to the Middle East see, for instance, Pasqualini, ‘La Marina Italiana’; Alegi, Wings over the Desert; Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’; Saba, L'imperialismo opportunista. The name Persia was used up to 1935 when Reza Shah decided to change it into Iran. Henderson to Clive, ‘Relations with Persia’, 15 Jan. 1930, The National Archives (TNA), FO 371/14529. Sluglett, Britain in Iraq, 210; Al-Marashi and Salama, Iraq's Armed Forces, 29. Silverfarb, Britain's Informal Empire, 22. Foreign Office (FO) to Clark Kerr, 6 July 1937, TNA, Air Ministry (AIR 2)/1952. Howard, The Continental Commitment, 100, 120; Bond, British Military Policy, 12, 80, 111, 188, 258, 267–70, 338; Peden, ‘Burden of Imperial Defence’, 405–06. In an attempt to win Arab support in the war against the Ottoman Empire, Britain started negotiations with Sharif Hussein. Between 1915 and 1916, Sharif Sayyid Hussein Bin Ali and Sir Henry McMahon, British high commissioner in Egypt, exchanged eight letters in which their agreement was specified. In his letter of 24 October 1915 to Hussein, McMahon declared on behalf of the British government that ‘subject to certain reservations and exclusions of territory not entirely Arab, Britain is prepared to recognize and support the independence of the Arabs within the territories included in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sharif of Mecca’. Shlaim, War and Peace in the Middle East, 11–12; Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East, 157–63; Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East, 44–58. Sluglett, Britain in Iraq, 4–6; Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East, 70. Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East, 204. Shlaim, War and Peace in the Middle East, 12–14; Sluglett, Britain in Iraq, 5. Yapp, The Near East since the First World War, 69–70. Darwin, ‘An Undeclared Empire’, 163–66; Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East, 87–88. Quoted in Graves, The Life of Sir Percy Cox, 26. Sluglett, Britain in Iraq, 6; Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East, 88–89. Yapp, The Near East since the First World War, 70; Darwin, ‘An Undeclared Empire’, 167–68; Sluglett, Britain in Iraq, 43–64; Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East, 92–96. Yapp, The Near East since the First World War, 70; Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East, 96. Strika, ‘Il mancato viaggio di Re Faysal I in Italia’, 373–79. Buti to Suvich, ‘Appunto per il Sottosegretario’, 11 June 1934; Mussolini to Porta, ‘Rapporti italo-iracheni’, 18 June 1934, Archivio Storico del Ministero degli Affari Esteri (ASMAE), Affari Politici (AP) 1931–45, Iraq, b. 8, f. 3. Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 540–41. De Felice, Il fascismo e l'Oriente; Goglia, ‘Il Mufti e Mussolini’; Fabei, Il fascio, la svastica e la mezzaluna and Mussolini e la resistenza palestinese; Martelli, Il fascio e la mezzaluna; Williams, Mussolini's Propaganda Abroad; Arielli, ‘Italian Involvement in the Arab Revolt in Palestine’. Celesia to Ministry for Foreign Affairs (MFA), ‘Relazioni Italo-Irachene’, 28 Aug. 1936, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 9, f. 1. Grandi to Ciano, 3 Nov. 1936, I Documenti Diplomatici Italiani (DDI), Series 8 (8th), vol. 5, 343. Silverfarb, Britain's Informal Empire, 74–77; Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 542. ‘Iraq: situazione politica nel 1937’ (unsigned and undated), ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 1. Howard, The Continental Commitment, 100; Peden, Arms, Economics and British Strategy, 158. Silverfarb, Britain's Informal Empire, 75–79. Inspector Iraq Air Force to Inspector Iraq Army, ‘The Iraq Air Force’, 18 Nov. 1936, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Minute written by Ward, ‘Desire of the Iraqi Government to Expand Their Air Force’, 15 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794; Rendel to Swinton, Desire of the Iraqi Government to Expand Their Air Force’, 20 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Ward to Pirie, ‘Draft Telegram’, 11 Feb. 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Rendel to Swinton, ‘Desire of the Iraqi Government to Expand Their Air Force’, 20 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Clark Kerr to FO, 8 Feb. 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Minute written by Ward, ‘Desire of the Iraq i Government to Expand Their Air Force’, 15 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Halifax to Swinton, ‘Desire of the Iraqi Government to Expand Their Air Force’, 20 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Pollici to MFA, ‘Forniture d'armi per l'Iraq’, 17 Nov. 1936, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 2. Dallolio to MFA, ‘Fornitura militari all'Iraq’, 24 Nov. 1936; Ciano to Pollici, ‘Forniture militari all'Iraq’, 28 Nov. 1936, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 2. Other benefits of an exclusively military nature also stimulated the interest of the Italian government in exports: the opportunity to sell in-service aircraft considered out of date or whose performance was below the requisite levels and the possibility of requisitioning aircraft being fitted out for foreign clients in case of emergency. The Fascist regime was not immune, either, to considerations of a predominantly economic nature—first and foremost that sharing the costs of production over a greater number of products made it possible to reduce the unit price. Then there were currency considerations, inasmuch as aircraft equipment was often paid for outside the clearing banks and allowed the Air Ministry to demand hard currency, which was necessary to pay for the imported raw materials. Minniti, ‘La politica industriale del Ministero dell'Aeronautica’, 46. Saba, L'imperialismo opportunista, 7–8. Air Ministry to MFA, ‘Forniture militari all'Iraq’, 28 Jan. 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Halifax to Swinton, ‘Desire of the Iraqi Government to Expand Their Air Force’, 20 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Ibid. Courtney to Swindon, ‘Supply of Aircraft to Iraq’, 23 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794, TNA, Air Ministry to Headquarter (Iraq), 25 Feb. 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Swinton to Courtney, ‘Supply of Aircraft to Iraq’, 25 Feb. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Eden to Swindon, 2 March 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Headquarter (Iraq) to Air Ministry, 3 March 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Courtney to Swinton, ‘Supply of Aircraft and Air Equipment to the Iraqi Government’, 5 March 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Minute written by Ward, ‘Supply of Aircraft to Iraq’, 12 March 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Headquarters (Iraq) to Air Ministry, 23 March and 8 April 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952. Minute written by Williams, ‘Purchase of Foreign Aircraft by the Iraqi Government’, 21 July 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Viaggio Roma Comandante Aviazione Militare Iraq’, 9 April 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Air Ministry to Mussolini, ‘Richiesta di fornitura aeroplani al Governo dell'Iraq’, Archivio Centrale dello Stato (ACS), Ministero dell'Aeronautica (MinAir), Gabinetto del Ministeri e del Segretaro Generale 1923–43 (Gab.) b. 70, f. 41.2. Aeroexport to Air Ministry, ‘Forniture all'Iraq’, 15 April 1937; Ilari to Iraqi Legation in Rome, 19 April 1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70, f. 41.2. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Missione militare irachena in viaggio in Italia’, 2 June 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Ilari to MFA, ‘Forniture armi all'Iraq’, 28 June 1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70, f. 41.2. Ansaldo to MFA, ‘Fornitura al Regio Governo dell'Iraq di 14 carri armati tipo CV.35’, 11 June 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931-1945, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. MFA to Gabbrielli, ‘Fornitura armi all'Iraq’, 16 June 1937. ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Russell to Ward, ‘Record of Conversations between Deputy Chief of the Air Staff and Director Iraq Air Force’, 5 June 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Clark Kerr to FO, ‘Supply of Italian Aircraft to Iraq’, 19 June 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Minute written by Ward, ‘Italian Mechanics to Go to Iraq in Connection with Supply of Italian Aeroplanes’, 1 July 1937, TNA, 371/20794. Ibid. FO to Clark Kerr, 6 July 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952. Minute written by Ward, ‘Iraqi Government's Purchase of Italian Aeroplanes’, 1 July 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Ibid. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Fornitura armi all'Iraq’, 19 July 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Fornitura armi all'Iraq’, 21 July 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931-1945, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Valle to Ciano, 4 Aug. 1937; Ilari to Ciano, ‘Fornitura aeroplani all'Iraq’, 7 Aug.1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70. f. 41.2. Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 548; Al-Marashi and Salama, Iraq's Armed Forces, 51–55. ‘Iraq: situazione politica nel 1937’ (unsigned and undate), ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 1. Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 548. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Forniture aeroplani all'Iraq’, 26 Aug. 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Forniture armi all'Iraq’, 30 Sept. 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Ciano to Gabbrielli, ‘Forniture aeroplani all'Iraq’, 31 Aug. 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Valle to Ciano, ‘Forniture aeroplani all'Iraq’, 8 Sept. 1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70, f. 41.2. Air Ministry to MFA, ‘Forniture di materiale bellico all'Iraq’, 3 Nov. 1937, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 10, f. 11. Valle to Ciano, ‘Forniture aeroplani all'Iraq’, 8 Sept. 1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70, f. 41.2. Iraqi Legation to MFA, 12 Nov. 1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70, f. 41.2. MFA to Air Ministry, ‘Fornitura di materiale bellico all'Iraq’, 22 Oct. 1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70, f. 41.2. MFA to Air Ministry, ‘Fornitura di materiale bellico all'Iraq’, 22 Oct. 1937; MFA to Air Ministry, 26 Nov. 1937, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 70, f. 41.2. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Forniture armi al governo iracheno’, 19 March 1938, ASMAE, AP 1931-1945, Iraq, b. 12, f. 2. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Forniture armi al governo iracheno’, 19 March 1938, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 79, f. 41.3. Minute written by Russell, ‘Italian Pilots and Mechanics in Baghdad’, 28 Oct. 1937, TNA, AIR 2/1952; Air Ministry to FO, ‘Introduction of Italian Mechanics into Iraq for Assembling and Giving Instruction in Maintenance of Italian Aircraft, Recently Purchased by Iraqis’, 3 Nov. 1937, TNA, FO 371/20794. Morgan to FO, ‘Italian Aircraft and Mechanics for Iraq’, 3 March 1938, TNA, FO 371/21850. Peterson to FO, ‘Employment of Italian Mechanics in Iraqi Air Force’, 29 April 1938, TNA, FO 371/21850. Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 552–53. Gusa to Air Ministry, ‘Aeroplani Ba.65 in Iraq’, 27 May 1938, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 79, f. 41.3. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Forniture d'armi per il governo iracheno’, 2 April 1938, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 12, f. 2. Ibid. MFA to Air Ministry, ‘Forniture materiale bellico all'Iraq’, 9 April 1938, ASMAE, AP 1931-1945, Iraq, b. 12, f. 2. Giardini to MFA, ‘Savoia Marchetti S.79 in Iraq’, 30 Oct. 1938, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 12, f. 2. An aeronautical consortium, whose shareholders were Alfa Romeo, Breda, CRDA, Caproni, FIAT, Isotta Fraschini, Macchi, Piaggio and SIAI, was set up by the Air Ministry at the beginning of 1937. The Consortium of Aeronautical Exports was to work in close contact with the departments of the ministry ‘in the name and on behalf of which’ it would operate in the foreign markets. Minniti, ‘La politica industriale del Ministero dell'Aeronautica’, 46–49. Giardini to MFA, ‘Fornitura di 15 aeroplani RO.37 all'Iraq’, 1 Oct. 1938; Air Ministry to MFA, ‘Forniture all'Iraq’, 30 Oct. 1938. ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 12, f. 2. Peterson to FO, ‘Employment of Italian Mechanics in Iraqi Air Force’, 14 Dec. 1938, TNA, FO 371/21851. Ibid. Baxter to Peterson, ‘Employment of Italian Mechanics in Iraqi Air Force’, 30 Dec. 1938, TNA, FO 371/21851. Peterson to FO, ‘Employment of Italian Mechanics in Iraqi Air Force’, 21 Dec. 1938, TNA, FO 371/21851. CIEA to Air Ministry, ‘Promemoria’, 29 May 1939, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 95, f. 41.3. Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 553. CIEA to Air Ministry, ‘Sottoufficiali Iracheni’, 14 Sept. 1939, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 95, f. 41.3. Gabbrielli to MFA, ‘Politica dell'Iraq’, 30 April 1939, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 13, f. 6. Ibid. CIEA to MFA, ‘Iraq’, 15 April 1939, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 13, f. 6. Gabbrielli to Ciano, 21 May 1939, DDI, 8th series, vol. 12, 280. Silverfarb, Britain's Informal Empire, 83. CIEA to Air Ministry, ‘Quinto S.79 per l'Iraq’, 28 Sept. 1939, ACS, MinAir, Gab. b. 95, f. 41.4; Air Ministry to MFA, ‘Invio in Iraq del Tenente Rodolfo Gusa’, 27 Oct. 1939, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 13, f. 6. The Golden Square was a loose alliance of patriotic officers who gained political ascendancy throughout the 1930s and early 1940s and attempted to free Iraqi foreign policy from its British orientation. Silverfarb, Britain's Informal Empire, 111–12. These completely secret negotiations lasted for about a year, but without meeting the expectations and ambitions of the nationalists. Mackensen to German Foreign Ministry, 11, 14 Sept. 1940, Documents on German Foreign Policy (DGFP), Series D (D), vol. 11, 40, 57, 58; Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 556–57. King Ghazi had died prematurely in 1939 in a car accident and his 4-year-old son was then made King Faisal II. De Felice, Il fascismo e l'Oriente, 50–52; Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 557–59. MFA to Ciano, ‘Appunto’, 6 May 1941, ASMAE, AP 1931–45, Iraq, b. 17, f. Aiuti militari italiani e tedeschi. De Felice, Il fascismo e l'Oriente, 60–64; Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 557–59; Kolinsky, Britain's War in the Middle East, 156–61. During the short time the fighter squadron was in Iraq (27–30 May 1941), it provided air support to the Iraqi army and engaged in a number of combat actions with the Royal Air Force, shooting down two Gladiator fighters and seriously damaging a third one. De Felice, Il fascismo e l'Oriente, 60–65; Luminari, ‘Armi all'Irak’, 557–59, 566–67; Kolinsky, Britain's War in the Middle East, 156–61. Silverfarb, Britain's Informal Empire, 78–80; Peden, Arms, Economics and British Strategy, 158. Saba, L'imperialismo opportunista, 63, 247. Silverfarb, Britain's Informal Empire, 83.

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