New contexts, different patterns? A comparative analysis of social spending and government health expenditure in Latin America and the OECD
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Much of our knowledge of the development of the welfare state centers on historical contingencies that characterized the industrial, political, and demographic context of Western Europe and North America. However, young welfare states in developing countries are emerging in response to different pressures than those faced by early welfare state; while globalization influences both young and established welfare states. Using newly released data for Latin America, this article provides a systematic comparison of social spending, spending on welfare and social security and government health spending in the OECD and Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1980s and 1990s. Results from cross-section time-series models indicate that the logic of industrialism welfare state approach is useful for examining social spending in Latin America. Namely, unemployment is associated with higher levels of social spending and spending on welfare and social security in both regions while a larger proportion of elderly population is associated with higher spending in Latin America. Globalization in the form of trade openness is associated with lower spending in the OECD across outcomes. In Latin America and the Caribbean the presence of international financial institutions powerfully pattern health and social spending: decreasing spending on welfare and social security and increasing health spending.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".