Domestic ballast operations on the Great Lakes: potential importance of Lakers as a vector for introduction and spread of nonindigenous species
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Ballast water is recognized globally as a major vector of aquatic nonindigenous species (NIS) introductions; domestic ballast water transfers, however, have generally been considered low risk in North America. We characterize ballast operations of domestic ships in the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence River system (Lakers) during 2005–2007 to examine the risk of primary and secondary introductions associated with ballast water transfers over short distances. Results indicate that Lakers transported at least 68 million tonnes of ballast water annually. Approximately 71% of ballast water transfers were interregional, with net movement being from lower to upper lakes. A small proportion of ballast water discharged in the Great Lakes (<1%) originated from ports in the St. Lawrence River that may serve as sources for new NIS. These results indicate that domestic ballast water transfers may contribute to NIS introductions and are likely the most important ballast-mediated pathway of secondary spread within the Great Lakes. Future efforts to reduce invasion impacts should consider both primary and secondary introduction mechanisms.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".