Experimental Investigation of Longitudinal Bending of Buried Steel Pipes Pulled through Dense Sand
Bibliographic record
Abstract
North America is traversed by many high-pressure oil and gas transmission pipes and the stability of that essential buried infrastructure must be maintained under a variety of earth-loading conditions. In the research reported in this paper, a series of pipe-bending experiments have been conducted on 105-mm (4.1-in.) outside diameter and 1,830-mm (6-ft) long steel pipes buried in dense sand placed in a 4,000×2,000×2,000-mm (157.5×78.7×74.7-in.) test pit. The pipe ends were pulled by two parallel cables attached to a spreader beam outside the test region, which was pulled by a hydraulic actuator. The research reported in this paper investigated burial depth-to-diameter ratios of 3, 5, and 7 as well as two horizontal extents for the soil behind the pipe distances of 3D and 9.5D. Special consideration was made to assess the influence of friction between the pulling-cables and soil. This friction is significant and may contribute about 20% of the maximum pulling load for the case of a depth-to-diameter ratio of 3. Consistency of results was established using four test repetitions for some cases. Whereas the horizontal extent of soil behind the pipe tested in the research reported in this paper had an insignificant influence on the pulling forces, the burial depths significantly influenced the ultimate pulling forces for the system. The failure mechanism controlling the limiting pulling force in these tests was consistently governed by the soil and the pipe remained elastic.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".