<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i>: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Strategies for Prevention
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Streptococcus pneumoniae is the most common cause of community-acquired pneumonia, meningitis, and bacteremia in children and adults. Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) primarily affects young children, older adults (> 65 years of age), and individuals with comorbidities or impaired immune systems. Case fatality rates range from 10 to 30% in adults with IPD but are much lower (< 3%) in children. In this article, we describe the epidemiology of IPD, risk factors, and the influence of host- and organism-specific factors on outcomes. Most cases of IPD are caused by a limited number of serotypes that vary in infectivity and virulence. Vaccinating adults and high-risk patients with the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine reduces the incidence of IPD in populations at risk but does not affect nasopharyngeal colonization and has had limited benefit in the population at large. Use of the heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) in children in the United States since 2000 has resulted in a substantial decline of IPD in both children and adults (by herd immunity), but has facilitated the emergence of serotypes not encompassed in the PCV7 vaccine. Recent reports of "replacement" serotypes that have heightened virulence are worrisome. In this chapter, we discuss the role of vaccines (both polysaccharide and conjugate) and other preventive strategies to limit this important and potentially lethal disease.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.004 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".