European roots of American gastroenterology - The Ismar Boas Lecture of the 56th Annual Meeting of the German Society of Gastroenterology, Münster, 13 September 2001 -
Bibliographic record
Abstract
American medicine in general, and gastroenterology in particular, have their roots in Europe, with its more than 2 thousand years of Greek-based rational science. The early colonists of America, whether Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch or English brought doctors from their own countries. This history is limited to USA and Canada, is illustrative and not a comprehensive chronicle. In the 17th century some colonial students went to the medical schools at Leyden and Utrecht in the Netherlands. Scientific gastroenterology dates from the 18th century. There was two-way communication between America and Europe. Europeans sent their books and specialists to America. Americans traveled to Europe, both as medical students and for postgraduate studies and research. Thirdly, in the 20th century, many European gastroenterologists fled to America as refugees from persecution. For simplicity historians have classified the 3 most medically influential European countries as Britain in the 18th century, France in the first half of the 19th century, followed by Austria and Germany up to 1933 [ 1 3 ].
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.020 | 0.007 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".