Bibliographic record
Abstract
We analyse the time evolution of the luminosity of a cluster of Population III protostars formed in the early Universe. We argue from the Jeans criterion that primordial gas can collapse to form a cluster of first stars that evolve relatively independently of one another (i.e. with negligible gravitational interaction). We model the collapse of individual protostellar clumps using non-axisymmetric numerical hydrodynamics simulations. Each collapse produces a protostar surrounded by a massive disc (i.e. Mdisc /M* ≳ 0.1), whose evolution we follow for a further 30–40 kyr. Gravitational instabilities result in the fragmentation and the formation of gravitationally bound clumps within the disc. The accretion of these fragments by the host protostar produces accretion and luminosity bursts on the order of 106 L⊙. Within the cluster, we show that a simultaneity of such events across several protostellar cluster members can elevate the cluster luminosity to 5–10 times greater than expected, and that the cluster spends ∼15 per cent of its star-forming history at these levels. This enhanced luminosity effect is particularly enabled in clusters of modest size with ≃10–20 members. In one such instance, we identify a confluence of burst events that raise the luminosity to nearly 1000 times greater than the cluster mean luminosity, resulting in L > 108 L⊙. This phenomenon arises solely through the gravitational-instability-driven episodic fragmentation and accretion that characterizes this early stage of protostellar evolution.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".