Measurement of freezing point depression of water in glass capillaries and the associated ice front shape
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Variations of the Kelvin equation [W. Thomson, Philos. Mag. 42, 448 (1871)] to describe the freezing point depression of water in capillaries exist in the literature. The differing equations, coupled with the uncertainty in input parameters, lead to various predictions. The difference between the predictions may become substantial when the capillary size decreases much below micron dimensions. An experiment was designed to investigate the predicted values using a customized directional solidification stage. The capillary freezing point depression for glass tubes with radii of 87 microm-3 microm was successfully measured. The image of the ice-water interface at equilibrium was also digitally captured and analyzed to examine the contact angle and the interface shape as well. Both are important for examining the hemispherical interface assumption that was exclusively used in the theoretical derivations. Finally, an equilibrium analysis of the thermodynamic system leads to a theoretical discussion of the problem. The effect of the temperature gradient on the interface shape is addressed, and an engineering criterion for the critical temperature gradient above which the effect must be considered for the interface shape calculation is derived.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".