Bibliographic record
Abstract
Globular clusters will be present at high redshifts near the very beginning of the galaxy formation process. Stellar evolution ensures that they will be much more luminous than today. We show that the redshift distribution at nanojansky levels should be very broad, extending up to the redshift of formation. A bracketing range of choices for the redshift of formation, spectral energy evolution models, and population density evolution leads to the conclusion that the sky densities should be around 10 7 per square degree at 1 nJy ( m AB = 31.4 mag) in bands around 4 μm. Such high sky densities begin to present a confusion problem at these wavelengths to diffraction-limited 6 m class telescopes. These starlike, low metallicity clusters will be a significant foreground population for "first light" object searches. On the other hand, they are an exceptionally interesting "second light" population in their own right. Depending on the details of galaxy assembly, the clusters will have a noticeable cross-correlation with galaxies on scales of about 20'' or less, depending on the details of the buildup of galaxy assembly after globular cluster formation. High-redshift globular clusters will be an accessible, direct probe of the earliest stages of the formation of galaxies and the buildup of metals in the universe.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.011 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".