Estimating Farmers’ Willingness to Pay for Improved Irrigation: An Economic Study of the Bontanga Irrigation Scheme in Northern Ghana
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This paper estimates the willingness of farmers under the Bontanga Irrigation Scheme (BIS) in Northern Ghana to pay for improved irrigation services. The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was used in this study and farmers were randomly selected for interviewing based on the location of their farms (upstream, middle, and downstream) within the scheme. The payment card elicitation format was used and the data were analyzed using Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) procedure that is capable of accommodating the intervals in payment card data. The mean willingness to pay was found to be GHC 16.32 (US$ 8.50) per ha per year and the median was GHC 14.00 (US$ 7.29) per ha per year. The study identified location of farm, land ownership, and land lease prices as the significant and influencing factors that affect willingness to pay.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.005 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".