Global Increases in Ultraviolet B Radiation: Potential Impacts on Amphibian Development and Metamorphosis
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Levels of ultraviolet B radiation (UVBR) reaching the Earth's surface have increased since the 1970s as a result of stratospheric ozone depletion caused by the emission of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) such as chlorofluorocarbons. Despite international agreements to phase out harmful ODSs, these substances are persistent, and even under the most optimistic scenarios, stratospheric ozone levels will not return to pre-1980 levels for several decades. Furthermore, climate change may enhance chemical stratospheric ozone depletion. Global phenomena such as climate change, ozone depletion, and acidification of aquatic ecosystems interact to modify dissolved organic carbon levels in aquatic systems, thereby increasing the penetration of UVBR. Since amphibians inhabit both aquatic and terrestrial habitats and have unshelled eggs and permeable skin, they are vulnerable to changes in environmental conditions and habitat quality. Increased exposure of amphibians to UVBR can produce lethal and sublethal effects, especially in individuals that do not possess adequate defense mechanisms to protect themselves. In this article, we discuss worldwide increases in UVBR and the adverse effects of UVBR exposure on amphibians. Specifically, studies on the effects of UVBR on amphibian development and metamorphosis are summarized, and possible mechanisms of thyroid system disruption caused by UVBR exposure are considered.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".