A feasibility study to determine the potential of<i>in vivo</i>detection of gadolinium by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) following gadolinium-based contrast-enhanced MRI
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The feasibility of using a (109)Cd γ-ray induced K x-ray fluorescence (K-XRF) system for the in vivo detection of gadolinium (Gd) in bone has been investigated. The K-XRF bone measurement system employs an array of four detectors, and is normally used for the non-invasive study of bone lead levels. The system was used to measure bone simulating phantoms doped with varying levels of gadolinium and fixed amounts of sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl) and calcium (Ca). The detection limits for bare bone phantoms, using a source of activity 0.17 GBq, were determined to be 3.9 ppm and 6.5 ppm (µg Gd per gram phantom) for the Kα1 and Kα2 Gd x-ray peaks, respectively. This leads to an overall detection limit of 3.3 ppm (µg Gd per gram phantom). Layers of plastic were used to simulate overlying soft tissue and this permitted prediction of a detection limit, using the current strength of our radioisotope source, of 6.1 ppm to 8.6 ppm (µg Gd per gram phantom) for fingers with 2-4 mm of overlying tissue. With a new source of activity 5 GBq, we predict that this system could achieve a detection limit of 4-5.6 µg Gd g(-1) Ca. This is within the range of levels (2-30 µg Gd g(-1) Ca) previously found in the bone of patients receiving Gd based contrast imaging agents. The technique is promising and warrants further investigation.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".