THE FORMATION OF SPHEROIDS IN EARLY-TYPE SPIRALS: CLUES FROM THEIR GLOBULAR CLUSTERS
Bibliographic record
Abstract
We use deep Hubble Space Telescope images taken with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) in the F475W and F814W filters to investigate the globular cluster (GC) systems in four edge-on Sa spiral galaxies covering a factor of four in luminosity. The specific frequencies of the blue GCs in the galaxies in our sample fall in the range 0.34–0.84, similar to typical values found for later-type spirals. The number of red GCs associated with the bulges generally increases with the bulge luminosity, similar to what is observed for elliptical galaxies, although the specific frequency of bulge clusters is a factor of 2–3 lower for the lowest luminosity bulges than for the higher-luminosity bulges. We present a new empirical relation between the fraction of red GCs and total bulge luminosity based on the elliptical galaxies studied by ACSVCS (ACS Virgo Cluster Survey) and discuss how this diagram can be used to assess the importance of dissipative processes in building spiral bulges. Our results suggest a picture where dissipative processes, which are expected during gas-rich major mergers, were more important for building luminous bulges of Sa galaxies, whereas secular evolution may have played a larger role in building lower-luminosity bulges in spirals.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".