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Record W2077206523 · doi:10.1080/13602365.2012.659900

An objective point of view: the orthogonal grid in eighteenth-century plans of Paris

2012· article· en· W2077206523 on OpenAlex
Min Kyung Lee

Why this work is in the frame

A frame that forgets how it found something cannot be audited. These are the routes that admitted this work.

aboutThe title or abstract carries a Canadian signal from the geographic lexicon.
no affNo Canadian affiliation: this work is invisible to an affiliation-only frame.
No Canadian affiliation. An affiliation-only frame, the usual design, would never have seen this work. It is one of the works that make the case for inverting the frame.

Bibliographic record

VenueThe Journal of Architecture · 2012
Typearticle
Languageen
FieldArts and Humanities
TopicArchitecture and Art History Studies
Canadian institutionsnot available
Fundersnot available
KeywordsHumanismFifteenthArt historyArchitectureRepresentation (politics)WoodcutPortraitHistory of artIdeal (ethics)ArtHumanitiesHistoryClassicsPoliticsVisual artsPhilosophyLawTheology

Abstract

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Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes Some exceptions exist, such as Leonardo da Vinci's Imola Plan (1502) and the Portsmouth Plan (1584), but they represent rare cases in the general convention of bird's-eye views. For a history of chorography, see, J.B. Harley, D. Woodward, eds, The History of Cartography, Vol. 3: Cartography in the European Renaissance (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 7–8. Jacopo de’ Barbari's woodcut map of Venice from 1500 is dated as the first appearance of a bird's-eye view that diverged from perspectival views of the fifteenth century. See, H. Ballon and D. Friedman, ‘Portraying the City in Early Modern Europe: Measurement, Representation, and Planning’, in, J.B. Harley and D. Woodward, eds, The History of Cartography, op. cit., p. 687. Humanist theory equated the physical attributes of the city to its character. See, D. Friedman, ‘‘Fiorenza’: Geography and Representation in the Fifteenth Century City View’, Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, 64 (2001), pp. 56–77 and, C. Smith, Architecture in the Culture of Early Humanism: Ethics, Aesthetics, and Eloquence, 1400–1470 (New York, Oxford University Press, 1992). For a discussion on maps as portraits, see L. Marin, De la représentation (Paris, Seuil/Gallimard, 1994), pp. 204–218 and, A. Picon, ‘Nineteenth-Century Urban Cartography and the Scientific Ideal: The Case of Paris’, Osiris 18, Science and the City (2003), p. 136. For a history about the structure of pre-industrial urban growth, see, P. Hohenberg and L. Lees, The Making of Urban Europe, 1000–1994 (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1995). ‘L'esprit géométrique’ was a term first used by Blaise Pascal in De l'esprit géométrique (1657). It was then picked up by Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle, when he used the term ‘l'esprit géométrique’ in the preface to his 1699 History of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Pascal's work found a new audience and was reprinted in several editions in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Tore Frängsmyr, J.L. Heilbron and Robin E. Rider translated this term as ‘the quantifying spirit’ for their publication; however, there is something specific about the graphic notation of quantification and its philosophical roots in geometry that is lost in that translation and that I believe to be important in spatial understandings in representations especially with regard to map-making as a form of knowledge production. See T. Frängsmyr, J. L. Heilbron, Robin E. Rider, eds, The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990). M. Pelletier, ‘Cartes, portraits et figures en France pendant la Renaissance’, in Cartographie de la France et du Monde de la Renaissance au Siècle des Lumières (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, 2001), pp. 9–29. P. Bullet, Traité de l'usage du pantomètre (Paris, 1675). See P. Pinon, B. Le Boudec, D. Carré, Les Plans de Paris: une histoire d'une capitale (Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, 2004), p. 50. Original citation: ‘l'avantage que l'on pouvoit [sic] espérer d'un plan exact et fidèle de Paris, sur lequel l'on marqueroit [sic] les changements, qui pourroient y estre [sic] faits dans la suite pour la commodité publique pour faciliter la communication des quartiers et pour l'embellissement de cette ville’. Unless otherwise stated, all translations are mine. Ibid., p. 50. Scholars have considered how drawing practices conditioned architectural production, but there has been comparatively little examination of the shift from perspectival to orthogonal modes and its impact in defining modern town planning. Notable studies on the question of orthogonality in architectural drawing are: R. Evans, Translations from Drawing to Building and Other Essays (London, Architectural Association Publications, 1997); J. Rykwert, ‘Translation and/or Representation’, RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics, 34 (Autumn, 1998), pp. 64–70; J. Ackerman and W. Jung, eds, Conventions of Architecture Drawing: Representation and Misrepresentation (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 2000); K. Rattenbury, ed., This Is Not Architecture: Media Constructions (London, Routledge, 2002); M. Carpo, F. Lemerle, eds, Perspective, Projections, and Design: technologies of architectural representation (London, Routledge, 2008). See P. Pinon, B. Le Boudec, D. Carré, Les Plans de Paris, op. cit., p. 58. Original citation: ‘un bon plan doit comprendre la totalité des faubourgs et des rues, qui doivent être représentées avec exactitude dans leur largeur et leur tracé’. H. Ballon, D. Friedman, ‘Portraying the City in Early Modern Europe: Measurement, Representation, and Planning’, op. cit., p. 691 and, Robert W. Karrow, ed., Mapmakers of the Sixteenth Century and Their Maps (Chicago, Speculum Orbis Press, 1993). For a corollary argument in architectural practices of the same period in England, see A. Gerbino, S. Johnson, Compass and Rule: Architecture as Mathematical Practice in England 1500–1750 (New Haven and London, Yale University Press in association with the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford and the Yale Center for British Art, 2009). J.B. Harley, D. Woodward, eds, The History of Cartography, Vol. 3: Cartography in the European Renaissance, op. cit., pp. 10, 13. G. Monge, Géométrie descriptive, leçons données aux écoles normales, l'an 3 de la République (Paris, Baudouin, 1799), p. 5. J. Pronteau, Edmé Verniquet, 1727–1804 (Paris, Commission de Travaux Historiques de la Ville de Paris, 1986). Cf., N. Papayanis, Planning Paris before Haussmann (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004). France officially adopted the metric system in 1795, but Napoleon I temporarily suspended the provisions in 1812. The metric system was reinstated in 1840. J.B. Harley, D. Woodward, eds, The History of Cartography, Vol. 3: Cartography in the European Renaissance, op. cit., p. 12. The adoption of the metre presented a radically different logic that was not based upon social hierarchies and the particularities of labour, but on a gridded spatial order: see K. Alder, ‘A Revolution to Measure’, in, M. Norton Wise, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 39–71. J. H. Williamson, ‘The Grid: History, Use, and Meaning’, Design Issues 3, no. 2 (Autumn, 1986), p. 21. F. Pairault, Gaspard Monge: le fondateur de polytechnique (Paris, Tallandier, 2000). Descriptive geometry is now known as orthographic projection and the graphical method is still used in technical and architectural drawing. G. Monge, Géométrie descriptive, leçons données aux écoles normales, op. cit., pp. 5–7. A. Perez-Gomez, L. Pelletier, ‘Architectural Representation beyond Perspectivism’, Perspecta, 27 (1992), p. 34. E.-F. Jomard, Considérations sur l'objet et les avantages d'une collection spéciale consacrée aux cartes géographiques et aux diverses branches de la géographie (Paris, 1831), p. 15. Original citation: ‘Les productions de la géographie dépendent uniquement des sciences exactes: les cartes sont avant toute autre chose une projection mathématique du globe ou de ses parties, une application de la géométrie descriptive’. For further studies of Jomard and the royal map collection, see M. Pelletier, ‘Jomard et le Département de Cartes et Plans’, Bulletin de la Bibliothèque Nationale, 4 (1979), pp. 18–27. For the relationship between architecture and descriptive geometry, see, E. Blau, E. Kaufman, R. Evans, P. Lambert, eds, L'Architecture et son image: quatre siècles de représentation architecturale: oeuvres tirées des collections du Centre canadien d'architecture (Montréal, Centre canadien d'architecture, 1989), p. 28. A. Perez-Gomez, ‘Architecture as Drawing’, Journal of Architecture Education 26, 2 (Winter, 1982), p. 5. See P. Collins, ‘The Origins of Graph Paper as an Influence on Architectural Design’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 21, no. 4 (December, 1962), p. 162. Original citation: ‘Le papier rayé à carreaux, dont on se sert à l'École Polytechnique dans le cours d'architecture, est très propre à faciliter les moyens de grouper et croquer la disposition des masses d'un projet de bâtiment. On considère chaque carreau comme formant un entre-axe ou un de ses multiples’. See also a reference to this use of gridded paper in A. Picon, ‘From “Poetry of Art” to Method: The Theory of Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand’, in J.-N.-L. Durand, Précis of the lectures on Architecture (Los Angeles, The Getty Research Institute, Texts & Documents series, 2000), p. 41. Ibid., p. 42. Original citation: ‘Pour l’élévation, elle se trouve toute composée dès que le plan et la coupe le sont’. K. Alder, The Measure of all Things: the seven-year odyssey and the hidden error that transformed the world (New York, Free Press, 2002). J. Pronteau, Edmé Verniquet, op. cit., pp. 358–9. For a parallel and contemporary example of how the making of grids function in the production of scientific knowledge, see B. Latour ‘Sol amazonien et circulation de la référence’, in L'Espoir de Pandore, Pour une version réaliste de l'activité scientifique (Paris, Editions La Découverte, Armillaire, 2001), pp. 33–82. Defined by Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison in their study of the value of objectivity in scientific practices, working objects ‘are the materials from which concepts are formed and to which they are applied . . . Working objects can be atlas images, type specimens, or laboratory processes—any manageable, communal representatives of the sector of nature under investigation’. See L. Daston, P. Galison, ‘The Image of Objectivity’, Representations, 40 (Autumn, 1992), p. 85. L. Marin, Le portrait du roi (Paris, Les Éditions de Minuit, 1981), p. 214. R. Krauss, ‘Grids’, October, 9 (1979), p. 52. R. E. Zupko, French Weights and Measures before the Revolution: a Dictionary of Provincial and Local Units (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1978) and W. Kula, Les mesures et les hommes, trs., Joanna Ritt (Paris, Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 1984). L. Daston, P. Galison, Objectivity (New York, Zone Books, 2010), pp. 17–53: see specifically the chapter entitled ‘Epistemologies of the Eye’ for a discussion of the relationship between image production and the definition of objectivity as a scientific value. L. Daston, P. Galison, ‘The Image of Objectivity’, op. cit., p. 98. A. Picon, ‘Nineteenth-Century Urban Cartography and the Scientific Ideal: The Case of Paris’, op. cit., p. 140. G.-E. Haussmann, Mémoires, ed., Françoise Choay (Paris, Seuil, 2000), p. 803. Original citation: ‘Je pouvais, à toute minute, en me retournant, chercher un détail, contrôler certaines indications, et reconnaître les corrélations topographiques des arrondissements et quartiers de Paris entre eux. Bien souvent, je me suis livré, devant ce tableau fidèle, à des méditations fructueuses’. Études d'un nouveau système d'alignemens et de permens de voies publiques faites en 1840 et 1841, M. Grillon, architecte, inspecteur-général au Conseil des bâtimens civils, ancien membre de Conseil général de la Seine, Callou, Entrepeneur de travaux, ancien membre du Tribunal de Commerce, membre de Conseil des Prud'hommes, M. Th. Jacoubet, Architecte, auteur de l'Atlas général de Paris, ancien chef du bureau des plans, à la Préfecture de la Seine (Paris, Chez Chaillou, 1848), p. 14. Original citation: ‘Nous avons dû chercher la cause de ces changements déplorables, qui jettent la perturbation dans les fortunes privées. C'est dans le manque d'ensemble de l’étude des alignemens [sic] que nous l'avons trouvée’. Ibid., p. 23. Original citation: ‘Dans nos études, nous avons embrassé Paris dans son ensemble et dans ses rapports avec les route ordinaires et les chemins de fer qui y pénètrent ou y aboutissent’. Gazette Municipal, avril 1843, ‘Plans de Paris. – Alignement’. Original citation: ‘Nous avions, depuis longtemps, la conviction que l'administration faisait fausse route en persistant avec une opiniâtreté déplorable dans un système qui manque d'unité’. Pierre Casselle, ed., Commission des embellissements de Paris: Rapport à l'empereur Napoléon III rédigé par le comte Henri Siméon (décembre 1853) (Paris, Commission du vieux Paris, 2000). Bibliothèque administrative de la ville de Paris, MS 1782, ff 22-25. Original citation: ‘Dans le programme des travaux qui a été dicté par l'Empereur lui-même, il est dit, article cinq, que le plan à dresser par la Commission devra s’étendre jusqu'aux fortifications. Personne n'est mieux en mesure que M. Jacoubet de fournir les matériaux de cette étude. Il est propriétaire des cuivres de trois plans de Paris, supérieurs à tous ceux qui existent parce qu'ils sont tracés exactement à l’échelle’. N. Papayanis, Planning Paris before Haussmann, op. cit., pp. 226–246 and, B. Lepetit, The Pre-Industrial Urban System: France, 1740–1840 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 409–419. See Michaël Darin, ‘Rivoli: entre rue et jardin’, in, P. Pinon, ed., Les Traversées de Paris: deux siècles de révolutions dans la ville (Paris, Editions du Moniteur, 1989), pp. 155–162.

Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.

Full frame distilled prediction

Teacher imitation

Not calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.

metaresearch head score (Codex)0.001
metaresearch head score (Gemma)0.000
Version: codex-gemma-dda1882f352aValidation status: machine_predicted_unvalidated
Candidate categoriesnone
Consensus categoriesnone
DomainCandidate signal: none · Consensus signal: none
Study designCandidate signal: Qualitative · Consensus signal: none
GenreCandidate signal: Empirical · Consensus signal: Empirical
Teacher disagreement score0.884
Threshold uncertainty score0.288

Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category

CategoryCodexGemma
Metaresearch0.0010.000
Meta-epidemiology (narrow)0.0000.000
Meta-epidemiology (broad)0.0000.000
Bibliometrics0.0000.000
Science and technology studies0.0000.001
Scholarly communication0.0000.000
Open science0.0000.000
Research integrity0.0000.001
Insufficient payload (model declined to judge)0.0000.000

Machine scores (provisional)

The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.

Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.

Opus teacher head0.012
GPT teacher head0.220
Teacher spread0.208 · how far apart the two teachers sit on this one work
Validation statusscore_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it