Fiscal Federalism and Public Service Provision in Canada
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This paper provides a general overview of the allocation of revenues and expenditures across levels of governments in Canada and discusses how public services in specific areas are financed and delivered. In doing so, the paper draws attention to a number of important characteristics of the Canadian federation and of its evolution in the post-war period as well as in recent years. In particular, the discussion highlights the relatively high and increasing degree of decentralization of the Canadian federation, reflected through the rising importance of provincial revenues and expenditures in the last five decades and the recent devolution of some provincial responsibilities to local governments, among other things. The discussion also illustrates the significant overlap of taxation powers and expenditure responsibilities across the three levels of government. The paper is divided into five sections. The first section briefly describes the constitutional allocation of responsibilities of each level of government. The second section looks at some of the trends in the revenues and expenditures by levels of government, as well as intergovernmental transfers in the post-war period. In the third section, the sources of revenues are examined. The fourth section describes the allocation of expenditures in each area and discusses how some of the main public services are financed and delivered. The last section further examines the role of municipal governments by briefly discussing the budgetary process at the municipal level and by providing a succinct overview of the recent devolution of provincial responsibilities to municipalities in Ontario.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.007 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.007 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.012 | 0.005 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.006 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.009 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".