Minireview: Recent Developments in the Regulation of Glucose Transporter-4 Traffic: New Signals, Locations, and Partners
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Glucose transporter (GLUT) 4 is the major glucose transporter of muscle and adipose cells, exquisitely regulated by insulin through posttranslational events. Twenty years after the seminal observations that GLUT4 levels rapidly rise at the plasma membrane (PM) and drop in endomembranes in response to an acute insulin challenge, we are still mapping the intracellular traffic of the transporter and the regulatory events that insulin unleashes. Newly synthesized GLUT4 enters an insulin-responsive compartment aided by GGA2 (an Arf-binding protein). In cultured adipocytes and myocytes, GLUT4 concentrates in a perinuclear pole through participation of microtubules and the EHD1 Eps15 homology domain-containing protein 1. In the absence of stimuli, GLUT4 distributes between recycling endosomes and the insulin-responsive compartment. A handful of proteins that bind to GLUT4 appear to regulate its half-life (e.g. Ubc9) and tethering within endomembranes (e.g. TUG). Insulin-derived signals promote not only GLUT4 mobilization toward the PM but also its traffic between endosomal compartments and internalization from the PM. Class IA phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase plays a pivotal role at several steps of GLUT4 mobilization. The PI 3-kinase --> atypical PKC and --> Akt/PKB --> AS160 signaling cascades are major regulators of GLUT4 exocytosis aided by small GTPases. At the cell periphery, GLUT4-containing vesicles tether, dock, and fuse with the PM assisted by the exocyst complex followed by engagement of a soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex [with vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)2 as the vesicular (v)-SNARE and soluble NSF-attachment protein (SNAP)23 and syntaxin4 as target (t)-SNAREs] regulated by the accessory proteins Munc18c, Synip and Tomosyn. Vesicle tethering and fusion are regulated by insulin through input from class IA PI 3-kinase.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.030 | 0.020 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".